Physico-chemical properties of starch. Description Starch description by gf

There are three types of carbohydrates: fiber and starch. While many weight loss diets suggest limiting your intake of starches and other carbohydrates, researchers are increasingly saying this is nothing but a myth. And even starchy flour will not settle with fat on the sides. Doctors also said their word about this substance. And it is also ambiguous. So what is starch, what is the most popular - potato starch, the benefits and harms of which are the topics of scientific discussion?

Biochemical properties

Starch (formula - (C 6 H 10 O 5) n) is a white granular organic substance that is produced by all green plants.

It is a tasteless powder, insoluble in cold water, alcohol and most other solvents. This substance belongs to the group of polysaccharides. The simplest form starch is a linear polymer of amylose. The branched form is represented by amylopectin. In reaction with forms a paste. Starch hydrolysis occurs in the presence of acids and an increase in temperature, resulting in the formation of glucose. Using iodine, it is easy to check the completion of the hydrolysis reaction (no more blue color will appear).

In green plants, starch is produced from excess glucose produced by photosynthesis. For plants, this substance serves as a source of energy. Starch in the form of granules is stored in chloroplasts. In some plants, the highest concentration of the substance is found in the roots and tubers, in others - in the stems, seeds. If the need arises, this substance can break down (under the influence of enzymes and water), creating glucose, which plants use as a feed. In the human body, as well as in the bodies of animals, the starch molecule also breaks down into sugars, and they also serve as a source of energy.

How it works in the human body

There are different varieties of rice, and all of them are useful for humans, as they contain vitamins, fiber and. This product can be consumed both in the form of hot dishes and cold snacks. But in order for it to be truly useful, it is better not to reheat the cooked dish, and if necessary, store it in the refrigerator between heatings, which will protect against the growth of harmful bacteria. But under any circumstances, the finished rice dish should not be stored for more than 24 hours. And during reheating for 2 minutes, keep at a temperature of about 70 degrees Celsius (you can over steam).

Pasta

It is better to give preference to dough made from durum wheat and water. It contains iron and B vitamins. Even more useful are pasta made from a whole grain base.

Table of starch content in products

Product	Starch (in percent)
Rice	78
	75
	74
Flour ( , )	72
Millet	69
Fresh bread	66
Corn	65
Noodles	65
Some studies have shown that this substance can be dangerous to humans. Therefore, nutritionists are against toasting (and especially burning) starchy foods such as potatoes, toast, root vegetables. Acrylamide is practically not produced in the process of cooking, steaming or baking in the microwave. And by the way, storing potatoes at very low temperatures increases the concentration of sugar in their composition, which also contributes to the release of a large portion of acrylamide during cooking. Combination with other substances and assimilation Starches in terms of combination with other nutrients are very demanding. Usually they do not interact well with other products and only combine well with each other. For maximum benefit starchy foods are best combined with raw vegetables in the form of salads. And by the way, the body will more easily digest raw starch than after heat treatment. And also this substance will decay faster if there are enough B vitamins in the body. Industrial use In industry, rice, corn, wheat, tapioca starch is found, but potato starch is perhaps the most popular. It is obtained by crushing the tubers and mixing the pulp with water. Then the pulp is separated from the liquid and dried. In addition, starch is used in brewing, in confectionery products as a thickener. It is also able to increase the strength of paper, used for the manufacture of corrugated cardboard, paper bags, boxes, rubberized paper. In the textile industry - as a sizing, which gives strength to the threads. Also in the food industry, amylopectin starch, obtained from waxy corn, is actively used. It is used as a thickener in sauces, dressings, fruit and milk desserts. Unlike the potato counterpart, this substance is transparent, has no aftertaste, and its unique chemical properties allow repeated freezing and heating of the starchy product. The presence of E1400, E1412, E1420 or E1422 in the list of ingredients of the product indicates that modified corn starch was used in the production of this food. It is distinguished from other species by its ability to swell and form gelatinized solutions. In the food industry, it is used as an anti-caking agent, to create the necessary texture of sauces, ketchups, yoghurts and dairy desserts. Also used in bakery products. Tapioca starch is also an ingredient in the food industry. But as a raw material for it, they use not the usual potatoes or corn, but cassava fruits. In terms of its abilities, this product resembles a potato one. Used as a thickener and anti-clotting agent. Starch is one of the products, the benefits and harms of which are not yet unequivocal. Meanwhile, there is excellent advice that people have been guided by at different times: everything should be in moderation and then food will not be harmful. This also applies to starches. General experience: 35 years . Education:1975-1982, 1MMI, San-Gig, highest qualification, infectious diseases doctor. Science degree: doctor of the highest category, candidate of medical sciences. Training:

Topic: "Introduction to the pharmacy"

Familiarize yourself with the location and equipment industrial premises pharmacies, the location and equipment of workplaces, the compliance of the sanitary condition with the requirements of the order of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation No. 309 dated 10/21/97.

I got acquainted with the premises for the storage of medicinal substances, compliance with the requirements of Order No. 377 of November 13, 1996 and No. 318 of November 5, 1997.

I studied the device and maintenance of the water distiller. Requirements for purified water and water for injection, storage, quality control and supply of purified water to workplace pharmacist-technologist.

Purified water should have pH = 5.0–7.0, not contain chlorides, sulfates, nitrates, reducing substances, calcium, carbon dioxide, heavy metals, ammonia content is normalized. In 1 ml of purified water there should not be more than 100 microorganisms.

Water for injection must meet the requirements for purified water, and, in addition, be pyrogen-free, that is, do not contain antimicrobial substances and other additives. It can be stored under aseptic conditions, but not more than 24 hours (at a temperature of 5–10º C or 80–95º C) in closed containers that exclude contamination by foreign particles and microorganisms.

Purified water is obtained in a specially equipped room. Purified water is obtained in water distillers.

More often, water distillers DE-4 and DE-25 of continuous action are used, with a single-stage evaporator, in which electric heating elements are mounted. An automatic sensor turns off the electric heating when the water level drops below the permissible level.

1. Rp.: Codeini 0.02

Riboflavini 0.02

Misce ut fiat pulvis

Da tales doses #4

Discharged complex dosed powder. Contains list B substances - codeine and diphenhydramine, and a coloring matter - riboflavin.

Codeine is a white crystalline powder white color, odorless, bitter taste.

Diphenhydramine is a white, odorless, finely crystalline powder with a bitter taste that causes numbness on the tongue.

Riboflavin is a yellow-orange crystalline powder, bitter taste, odorless. Slightly soluble in water, practically insoluble in 95% alcohol, ether, acetone, benzene and chloroform.

Sugar - white or colorless crystals, odorless, sweet taste, easily soluble in water.

The components are compatible.

Dose check.

Codeine: Prescription RD=0.02 SD=0.06

according to GF WFD = 0.05 ERR = 0.2

Diphenhydramine: prescription RD = 0.05 SD = 0.15

according to GF WFD = 0.1 ERR = 0.25

Doses are not too high.

Codeine: 0.02 x 4 = 0.08

Riboflavin: 0.02 x 4 = 0.08

Dimedrol: 0.05 x 4 = 0.2

Sugar: 0.25 x 4 = 1.0

Total weight: 0.08 + 0.08 + 0.2 + 1.0 = 1.36

Weight: 1.36 / 4 = 0.34

To prepare the powder, use mortar No. 2. Optimal time grinding 90 seconds.

We determine the losses during mashing the pores of the mortar (coefficient = 2).

Codeine: 0.007 x 2 = 0.014

0.014 - x% x \u003d 0.014 x 100 / 0.08 \u003d 17.5%

Sugar: 0.021 x 2 = 0.042

0.042 - x% x \u003d 0.042 x 100 / 1 \u003d 4.2%

Rub the pores of the mortar with sugar.

Technology: Place 1 g of sugar in a mortar, grind, then add 0.08 g of codeine, layer 0.08 g of riboflavin on top and layer 0.2 g of diphenhydramine on it. We grind everything.

Riboflavini 0.08

Dimedroli 0,2

m total = 1.36

m 1 \u003d 0.34 No. 4

prepared:

checked:

released:

We pack 0.34 g in waxed capsules and put them in a paper bag.

2. Rp.: Codeini phosphates 0.015

Coffeini - sodium benzoatis 0.05

Misce ut fiat pulvis

Da tale doses no. 15

signa. 1 powder 3 times a day.

Discharged complex dosed powder. Contains substances of list B - codeine phosphate, caffeine - sodium benzoate, analgin.

Codeine Phosphate is a white crystalline powder, easily soluble in water.

Caffeine sodium benzoate is a white, odorless crystalline powder.

Analgin is a white or white with a barely noticeable yellowish tinge, coarsely acicular crystalline powder, easily soluble in water.

The components are compatible.

Dose check.

Codeine Phosphate: Prescription RD=0.015 SD=0.045

according to GF WFD = 0.1 ERR = 0.3

Caffeine-Sodium Benzoate: Prescription RD=0.05 SD=0.15

according to GF WFD = 0.5 ERR = 1.5

Analgin: prescription RD = 0.3 SD = 0.9

according to GF WFD = 1 VSD = 3

Doses are not too high.

Codeine phosphate: 0.015 x 15 = 0.23

Caffeine - sodium benzoate: 0.05 x 15 = 0.75

Analgin: 0.3 x 15 = 4.5

Weight: 5.48 / 15 = 0.37

We use mortar number 4.

Codeine phosphate: 0.007 x 3 = 0.021

0.021 – x% x = 9.1%

0.048 - x% x = 6.4%

Analgin: 0.022 x 3 = 0.066

0.066 - x% x = 1.47%

Rub the pores of the mortar with analgin.

Technology: put 4.5 g of analgin in mortar No. 4, grind, add 0.75 g of caffeine sodium benzoate. And lastly add 0.23 g of codeine phosphate. We grind everything.

Date____No. 2

Coffeini-natriibenzoatis 0.75

codeini phosphates 0,23

m total = 5.48

m 1 \u003d 0.37 No. 15

prepared:

checked:

released:

We issue the label: “Internal”, “Powders”, “Keep in a cool place”, “Keep in a place protected from light”, “Keep out of children”.

Shelf life of powders is 10 days.

Date: 4.08. 2009

Familiarize yourself with the basic rules of preparation. Prepared 1 powder for external use, 2 solutions for internal use.

Powders are called solid dosage form, consisting of one or more bulk medicinal substances, which, as a result of grinding and mixing, appear homogeneous when viewed with the naked eye.

Powders are free all-round dispersion systems without a dispersion medium with finely dispersed particles of various sizes and shapes. In some cases, liquid components are introduced into the powders, but in amounts that do not disturb their flowability.

The preparation of powders consists of the following technological operations:

1. Pharmaceutical examination of the prescription.

2. Preparatory measures.

3. Choice the best option technologies taking into account the mass and physico-chemical properties of the incoming components.

4. Calculation of the amount of powder ingredients.

5. Weighing out the ingredients.

6. Grinding, mixing.

7. Dosing.

8. Packing and decoration for the holiday.

9. Issuance of a written control passport.

10. Evaluation of the quality of powders.

3. Rp.: Phenobarbitali 0.05

Coffeini - sodium benzoatis 0.02

Papaverini hydrochloridi 0.03

Calcii gluconatis 0.5

Misce ut fiat pulvis

Datalesdoses No. 10

Discharged complex dosed powder. Contains list B substances - phenobarbital, caffeine - sodium benzoate, papaverine hydrochloride.

Phenobarbital is a white, odorless, crystalline powder with a bitter taste.

Caffeine sodium benzoate - see recipe number 2.

Calcium gluconate is a white, odorless powder.

The components are compatible.

Dose check.

Phenobarbital: Prescription RD=0.05 SD=0.1

according to GF WFD = 0.2 ERR = 0.5

Caffeine - sodium benzoate: Prescription RD = 0.02 SD = 0.04

according to GF WFD = 0.5 ERR = 1.5

according to GF WFD = 0.2 ERR = 0.6

Doses are not too high.

Phenobarbital: 0.05 x 10 = 0.5

Caffeine-sodium benzoate: 0.02 x 10 = 0.2

Calcium gluconate: 0.5 x 10 = 5.0

Weight total: 0.5 + 0.2 + 0.3 + 5.0 = 6.0

Weighting: 6 / 10 = 0.6

We use mortar number 4.

We calculate losses (coefficient 3):

Phenobarbital: 0.018 x 3 = 0.054

0.054 – x% x = 10.8%

Caffeine - sodium benzoate: 0.016 x 3 \u003d 0.048

0.048 - x% x = 24%

Papaverine hydrochloride: 0.01 x 3 = 0.03

0.03 – x% x = 10%

Rub the pores of the mortar with calcium gluconate (crystalline substance).

Technology: put 5 g of calcium gluconate into mortar No. 4, grind, then add 0.3 g of papaverine hydrochloride, grind, add 0.5 g of phenobarbital and 0.2 g of caffeine-sodium benzoate. We grind everything, mix.

Date____No. 3

Calcigluconatis 5.0

Papaverini hydrochloride 0.3

Phenobarbital 0.5

Coffeini-natrii benzoatis 0.2

m 1 \u003d 0.6 No. 10

prepared:

checked:

released:

We pack 0.6 g in waxed capsules and put them in a paper bag.

We issue the label: “Internal”, “Powders”, “Keep in a cool place”, “Keep in a place protected from light”, “Keep out of children”.

Shelf life of powders is 10 days.

4. Rp.: Magnesiioxydi

Natrii hydrocarbonatis

Bismuti subnitratis ana 0.25

Misce ut fiat pulvis

Da tale doses no. 15

signa. 1 powder 3 times a day.

Discharged complex dosed powder. Contains a light dusting substance - magnesium oxide.

Magnesium oxide is a white amorphous odorless powder.

Sodium bicarbonate is a white crystalline powder, odorless, slightly alkaline in taste, stable in dry air, slowly decomposing in humid air. Soluble in water.

Bismuth subnitrate is a white amorphous or finely crystalline powder.

The components are compatible.

Magnesium oxide: 0.25 x 15 = 3.75

Sodium bicarbonate: 3.75

Bismuth subnitrate: 3.75

Weight total: 3.75 x 3 = 11.25

Weight: 11.25 / 15 = 0.75

Since magnesium oxide is an easily dusting substance, when determining the mortar, we conditionally increase its mass by 2 times. We use mortar number 4.

We calculate losses (coefficient 5):

Magnesium oxide: 0.016 x 5 = 0.08

0.08 - x% x = 2.1%

Sodium bicarbonate: 0.011 x 5 = 0.055

0.055 - x% x = 1.4%

Bismuth subnitrate: 0.0042 x 5 = 0.21

0.21 – x% x = 5.6%

Rub the pores of the mortar with sodium bicarbonate.

Technology: put 3.75 g of sodium bicarbonate into mortar No. 5, grind. Then add 3.75 g of bismuth subnitrate, grind everything. At the end, with gentle stirring, add 3.75 g of magnesium oxide.

Date____No. 4

Natriihydrocarbonatis 3.75

Bismutisubnitratis 3.75

Magnesii oxydi 3.75

m total = 11.25

m 1 \u003d 0.75 No. 15

prepared:

checked:

released:

We pack 0.75 g in waxed capsules and put them in a paper bag.

We issue the label: “Internal”, “Powders”, “Keep in a cool place”, “Keep in a place protected from light”, “Keep out of children”.

Shelf life of powders is 10 days.

Date: 5.08.2009

Topic: "Preparation of powders"

Familiarized with special cases of preparation of powders. Prepared 3 powders for internal use.

In the manufacture of complex powders, the physicochemical properties of the incoming ingredients and the quantities in which the medicinal substances are prescribed are taken into account.

The basic rules for the manufacture of complex powders are as follows:

1. The preparation of complex powders begins with the choice of mortar, guided by the optimal load of the mortar.

2. First grind in a mortar:

- a substance that is therapeutically indifferent;

- difficult powdered medicinal substances in the presence of alcohol or ether. Alcohol is taken 5-10 drops per 1.0 g of the substance, and ether - 10-15 drops;

- substances that are less lost in the pores of the mortar. It is important that the loss of the medicinal substance, which is crushed first, does not exceed the permissible deviations, so its amount must be large enough.

3. Substances are placed second in the mortar according to the principle: from smallest to largest. If the amount of ingredient added second is less than 1/20 of the first, then at the beginning of preparation, the first ingredient is partially placed in the mortar so that the ratio of 1:20 is not exceeded in the future.

4. If the substances are prescribed in equal amounts or approximately in equal amounts, and at the same time their physicochemical properties and losses in the pores of the mortar are close, then they are added to the mortar and ground together.

5. If the substances are prescribed in equal amounts, and their physicochemical properties are different, then coarsely crystalline substances (magnesium sulfate, sodium chloride, potassium alum, etc.) are first crushed, and then finely crystalline.

6. Medicinal substances containing a large amount of water of crystallization are also introduced into complex powders in dried form (sodium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, etc.) in order to avoid sintering or, conversely, dampening of mixtures during storage.

7. Easily mobile, "dusty" substances with a low bulk density (magnesium oxide, magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, etc.) are added to the mortar as a last resort. Their mixing with the rest of the ingredients should not be prolonged, otherwise it may lead to unnecessary losses of "dusty" medicinal substances.

In those cases when in the recipe, together with the "dusty" substance, the loss in the pores of the mortar is greater, the preparation of powders must still be started with the "dusty". At the same time, its entire amount is weighed, a small part is placed in the mortar, sufficient to fill the pores of the mortar, and the remaining amount is added in portions last, gently mixing.

8. If toxic or potent substances are prescribed in the composition of a complex powder in an amount of less than 0.05 g for the entire mass, then triturations of 1:10 or 1:100 should be used. the name "trituration" comes from the Latin word trituratio - grinding, since these mixtures are prepared by grinding in a mortar.

As a diluent, milk sugar should be used, which is non-hygroscopic and has a density of 1.52, close to those of alkaloid salts and other poisonous drugs used in the form of triturations. The medicinal substance and milk sugar are ground to the smallest powder and thoroughly mixed. To reduce stratification, triturations are stored in small jars and periodically mixed in a mortar.

9. Dyes (methylene blue, riboflavin, etc.) are placed in a mortar between two layers of an uncolored substance, crushed and mixed until smooth. Powders with coloring substances are prepared at a separate workplace; use a special mortar for each substance.

10. Complex powders with colored substances (dry extracts, rutin, etc.) are prepared according to general rules.

11. Liquid ingredients (tinctures, liquid extracts) are added at the end of mixing, but can be used to grind hard-to-powder substances. The introduction of liquid ingredients into the composition of powders should not change the main property of the powder - flowability. Butter sugar is prepared extempora at the rate of 1 drop of essential oil per 2 g of sugar.

12. Grinding and mixing of medicines is continued until, when examining the mass of the prepared powder with the naked eye from a distance of 25 cm, individual particles are no longer detected. In this case, it is undesirable to exceed the optimal grinding time, since this can lead to particle aggregation.

5. Rp.: Riboflavini 0.015

Piridoxyni hydrochloride 0.05

Misce ut fiat pulvis

Da tale doses no. 15

signa. 1 powder 3 times a day.

Discharged complex dosed powder. Contains a coloring agent - riboflavin.

Riboflavin - see recipe number 1.

Pyridoxine hydrochloride is a white, odorless crystalline powder.

Glucose - colorless crystals or white crystalline powder, odorless, sweet taste.

The components are compatible.

Riboflavin: 0.015 x 15 = 0.23

Pyridoxine hydrochloride: 0.05 x 15 = 0.75

Glucose: 0.3 x 15 = 4.5

Weight total: 0.23 + 0.75 + 4.5 = 5.48

Weight: 5.48 / 15 = 0.37

Since there is an indifferent substance - glucose, we rub the pores of the mortar with it. We use mortar number 4.

Technology: put 4.5 g of glucose in mortar No. 4, grind. Then add 0.23 g of riboflavin and layer 0.75 g of pyridoxine hydrochloride on top, rub.

Date____No. 5

Riboflavini 0.23

Piridoxini hydrochloride 0,75

m 1 \u003d 0.37 No. 15

prepared:

checked:

released:

We pack 0.37 g in waxed capsules and put them in a paper bag.

We issue the label: “Internal”, “Powders”, “Keep in a cool place”, “Keep in a place protected from light”, “Keep out of children”.

Shelf life of powders is 10 days.

6. Rp.: Papaverinihydrochloridi 0.03

Misce ut fiat pulvis

Da tale doses no. 10

signa. 1 powder 2 times a day.

Discharged complex dosed powder. Contains list B substances - papaverine hydrochloride, diphenhydramine, and camphor, which is difficult to grind.

Camphor - white crystalline pieces or colorless crystalline powder, has a strong characteristic odor and a spicy bitter, then cooling taste. Slightly soluble in water, easily soluble in fatty and essential oils.

Diphenhydramine - see recipe number 1.

Papaverine hydrochloride is a white, odorless, crystalline powder with a slightly bitter taste, list B.

The components are compatible.

Dose check.

Diphenhydramine: prescription RD = 0.03 SD = 0.06

according to GF WFD = 0.1 ERR = 0.25

Papaverine hydrochloride: prescription RD = 0.03 SD = 0.06

according to GF WFD = 0.2 ERR = 0.6

Doses are not too high.

Papaverine hydrochloride: 0.03 x 10 = 0.3

Diphenhydramine: 0.03 x 10 = 0.3

Camphor: 0.25 x 10 = 2.5

Weight total: 0.3 + 0.3 + 2.5 = 3.1

Weighting: 3.1 / 10 = 0.31

We use mortar number 3.

Since camphor is a difficult to grind substance, when grinding it, we use 95% alcohol:

10 drops - 1 g

x drops - 2.5 g

x = 25 drops

We calculate losses (coefficient 2):

Papaverine hydrochloride: 0.01 x 2 = 0.02

0.02 - x% x = 6.67%

camphor: 0.024 x 3 = 0.048

0.048 - x% x = 1.92%

Technology: put 2.5 g of camphor in mortar No. 3, add 25 drops of 95% alcohol, grind. Then add 0.3 g of papaverine hydrochloride and 0.3 g of diphenhydramine, grind everything, mix.

Date____No. 6

SpiritusaethyliciXXVgtts.

Papaverini hydrochloride 0.3

Dimedroli 0.3

m 1 \u003d 0.31 No. 10

prepared:

checked:

released:

We pack 0.31 g into parchment capsules and put them in a paper bag.

We issue the label: “Internal”, “Powders”, “Keep in a cool place”, “Keep in a place protected from light”, “Keep out of children”.

Shelf life of powders is 10 days.

Date: 6.08.2009

Topic: "Preparation of aqueous and non-aqueous solutions"

Acquainted with the rules for the preparation of aqueous solutions. Studied solvents for the preparation of solutions.

Cooked 3 aqueous solutions for internal use and 2 complex powders.

Solvents are individual chemical compounds or mixtures that can dissolve various substances, that is, form homogeneous mixtures with them - solutions consisting of two or more components.

By origin, solvents are divided into:

1) natural: inorganic (purified water); organic (ethanol, glycerin, fatty and mineral oils);

2) synthetic and semi-synthetic: organic (dimexide, PEO - 400); organoelement (polyorganosiloxane liquids).

In practice, solvents include only those substances that meet certain requirements, namely:

1) have a dissolving power or provide optimal dispersion;

2) ensure the bioavailability of medicinal substances;

3) are not exposed to microbial contamination;

4) chemically indifferent, biologically harmless;

5) have optimal organoleptic properties;

6) cost-effective.

The manufacture of dosage forms is carried out using a mass-like manufacturing method, which involves, depending on the nature of the dispersion medium and the dispersion phase, the manufacture of various drugs in concentration by weight, by volume or in mass-volume concentration.

Solution preparation steps:

1) calculation of the amounts of medicinal substances and water

2) preparation of the dispensing bottle, stopper and filter

3) dissolution

4) filtering or straining

5) control of solutions for the absence of mechanical inclusions

6) packaging and clearance for the holiday.

7. Rp.: Mucylaginis Amyli 100.0

Sodium bromide 1.5

Miss. Da. signa. For 2 enemas.

Discharged liquid dosage form for external use. Contains starch mucus and a strong electrolyte - sodium bromide.

Starch is a white, delicate powder, odorless and tasteless, or pieces of irregular shape, which, when rubbed, are easily ground into powder. Insoluble in cold water, alcohol, ether.

Sodium bromide is a white crystalline powder, odorless, salty taste, contains one molecule of water of crystallization. The powder is soluble in 1.5 parts of water, photosensitive.

Since the concentration is not indicated, we prepare 2% starch slime.

To prepare 2% mucus you need: 1 part starch

4 parts cold water

45 parts hot water

Therefore, we take 2 g of starch

8 g cold water

90 g hot water.

Since there is sodium bromide, we dissolve it separately in 5 ml of water and reduce the volume of hot water to make mucus.

Technology: In a separate stand, we dissolve 1.5 g of sodium bromide in 5 ml of water. In another stand we weigh 2 g of starch, add 8 ml of water at room temperature, mix. Bring the remaining 85 ml of water to a boil, pour the starch suspension into it in a thin stream and boil for 2 minutes. Then cool, add a solution of sodium bromide. We mix.

Date____No. 7

Aquaepurificataefrigidae 5ml

Sodium bromide 1.5

Aquae purificatae frigidae 8 ml

Aquae purificatae ebulentis 85 ml

prepared:

checked:

released:

We filter into an orange glass dispensing bottle, cork with a rubber stopper, and roll in with a metal cap.

We issue labels: "Outdoor", "Store in a dry place", "Store in a place protected from light", "Keep away from children", shelf life 2 days in a cool place.

8. Rp.: Natriibromidi 1.0

Coffeini-natrii benzoatis 0.5

Aquae purificatae 100 ml

Discharged liquid dosage form for oral administration. Contains a substance of list B - caffeine-sodium benzoate.

Caffeine-sodium benzoate - see recipe number 3.

Dose check.

Total volume: 100 ml

Number of receptions: 100: 15 = 6

Prescription: RD = 0.5/6 = 0.08

SD \u003d 0.08 x 3 \u003d 0.24

According to the GF: WFD = 0.5

Doses are not too high.

Mass of medicinal substances = 1.0 + 0.5 = 1.5

Total concentration of dissolved substances: 1.5%. This is less than 3%, which means that the increase in volume is not taken into account.

Technology: We measure about 10 ml of purified water into the stand, dissolve in it 0.5 g of caffeine-sodium benzoate (list B) and 1 g of sodium bromide. Add the rest of the water. We mix.

Date ______ No. 8

Aquaepurificatae 10ml

Coffeini-natriibenzoatis 0.5

Sodium bromide 1.0

Aquae purificatae 90 ml

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

Filter through a double layer of gauze into an orange glass dispensing bottle. We issue labels: “Internal”, “Potion”, “Keep in a place protected from light”, “Keep in a cool place”, “Keep away from children”.

Date: 7.08.2009

Topic "Preparation of aqueous and non-aqueous solutions"

I got acquainted with the rules for the preparation of alcohol, oil solutions. Studied non-aqueous solvents and their requirements. Prepared 4 solutions (1 aqueous and 3 non-aqueous).

Solutions in non-aqueous solvents are divided into:

– solutions in volatile solvents (alcohol, chloroform, ether)

– solutions on non-volatile solvents (vegetable and vaseline oils, glycerin)

- solutions on combined solvents.

General manufacturing rules:

1) Alcohol solutions prepared by mass-volume method, solutions in other solvents - by weight (including solutions with ether and chloroform).

2) Solutions are prepared in a dispensing vial. This is due to the possible loss of solvent when pouring the solution from the stand due to the viscosity or volatility of the solvent.

3) First, the powders are placed in the dispensing vial, then the solvent is dispensed.

4) To accelerate the dissolution of medicinal substances, the vial is sealed and heated in a bath to 40-45°C. (An exception is solutions with ether).

5) Filter if necessary (on viscous solvents - through 2 layers of gauze, on volatile ones - through a dry cotton swab, covering the funnel with a watch glass).

6) If the solutions are prepared by weight, then for quality control they need to know the weight of the vial. It is indicated in the PPC.

9. Rp.: Glucosi 3.0

Kalii iodidi 1.5

Adonisidi 4.5ml

AquaeMenthae 150ml

Miss. Da. signa. 1 tablespoon 3 times a day.

Discharged liquid dosage form for internal use. Contains a substance of list B - adonizide.

Glucose - see recipe number 5

Potassium iodide - colorless or white cubic crystals or white fine crystalline powder, odorless, salty-bitter taste, damp in humid air. Soluble in 0.75 parts of water.

Adonizide is a novogalenic drug, a clear liquid of a slightly yellowish color, a peculiar smell, and a bitter taste. List B.

Checking doses.

According to the GF: WFD = 40 drops

VSD \u003d 120 drops

1 ml contains 34 drops

In 4.5 ml - x

X \u003d 4.5 x 34 / 1 \u003d 153 drops

Number of receptions: 154.5 / 15 = 10

By prescription: RD = 153 / 10 = 15.3 cap.

SD \u003d 15.3 x 3 \u003d 45.9 cap.

Doses are not too high.

Glucose: because glucose contains 10% water, which means: 3 x 100 / 100–10 = 3.3 g

We find ∆V fact. = 3.3 x 0.69 + 1.5 x 0.25 = 2.655

Tolerance limits: ± 2%

2 ml - 100 ml

X - 154.5 ml x \u003d 3.1

∆V perm. = 3.1 ml

Since ∆V perm. greater than ∆V actual, then the increase in volume is not taken into account in the manufacture.

Technology: measure 150 ml of mint water into the stand, dissolve 3.3 g of glucose and 1.5 g of potassium iodide in it. Then we filter through a cotton swab into an orange glass dispensing bottle. Add adonizide and shake well.

Date ______ No. 9

AquaeMenthae 150ml

Kalii iodidi 1.5

Adonisidi 4.5ml

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

10. Rp.: Codeiniphosphatis 0.15

Papaverini hydrochloridi 0.5

Aquae purificatae 100 ml

Miss. Da. signa. 1 dessert spoon 3 times a day.

Discharged liquid dosage form for internal use. Contains list B substances - papaverine hydrochloride, codeine phosphate.

Codeine phosphate - see recipe number 2.

Papaverine hydrochloride - see recipe number 6.

Checking doses.

Find the total volume.

Mass of medicinal substances: 0.15 + 0.5 \u003d 0.65 g

Prescription concentration of 0.65% is less than 3%, which means that the increase in volume is not taken into account.

Number of tricks: 100 / 10 = 10

Codeine phosphate: prescription: RD = 0.15 / 10 = 0.015

SD \u003d 0.015 x 3 \u003d 0.15

According to the GF: WFD = 0.1

Papaverine hydrochloride: prescription RD = 0.5 / 10 = 0.05

SD \u003d 0.05 x 3 \u003d 0.15

According to the GF: WFD = 0.2

Doses are not too high.

Technology: measure 100 ml of purified water into a stand, dissolve 0.5 g of papaverine hydrochloride and 0.15 g of codeine phosphate in it. We mix. Then we filter through a cotton swab into an orange glass dispensing bottle.

Date ______ No. 10

Aquaepurificatae 100ml

Papaverinihydrochloridi 0.5

codeini phosphatis 0,15

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

We cork with a rubber stopper, run in a metal cap. We issue the label: “Potion”, “Internal”, “Keep in a cool place”, “Keep in a dark place”, “Keep out of the reach of children”.

Date: 08/10/2009

She studied the cases of formation of suspensions, requirements for them, classification, advantages and disadvantages, preparation methods. Prepared 2 powders for external use, 2 solutions.

Suspensions are a liquid dosage form, which is a finely dispersed system in which a solid substance is suspended in a liquid.

According to the dispersological classification, these are free comprehensive disperse systems with a liquid medium and a solid phase.

This dosage form is intended for internal, external and injection use.

Suspensions are formed when:

1) the substance is insoluble in liquid;

2) the solubility limit of the substance in the given liquid has been exceeded;

3) two separately soluble substances are mixed, reacting with each other with the formation of a precipitate.

Advantages:

1. Easy to fix taste, color, smell.

2. The solid phase can be prepared in the form of powders for long-term storage, and the liquid can be added before use.

3. The therapeutic effect in the absorption of suspensions is higher than that of many solid or liquid medicinal substances, since it is possible to combine the advantages of both.

Flaws:

1. It is impossible to accurately dose the dispersed phase.

2. Possible hydrolytic cleavage of medicinal substances (provides interaction with the environment).

3. Do not use poisonous and potent substances.

There are two methods for making suspensions:

- dispersive

– condensing

1. Dispersion method.

Depending on the type of dispersion, there are:

A) mechanical

B) chemical

B) electrochemical

D) ultrasonic.

Pharmacy mainly uses mechanical dispersion.

Grinding the solid phase in a mortar, wetting the powder with a solvent according to Deryagin's rule: the liquid has the greatest wedging effect when there is 0.4–0.6 g of liquid per 1 g of dry matter.

Factors contributing to the grinding process:

1) removal of free surface energy during rubbing;

2) the liquid penetrates into the microcracks of the part and expands them;

3) with half the amount of liquid, the optimal friction value;

4) in a liquid medium, the shock-absorbing effect of air is eliminated.

2. Condensation method.

The condensation method is carried out in two ways:

A) Solvent replacement method.

B) Method of chemical dispersion.

11. Rp.: Solutionis Natrii bromidi 2% – 100 ml

Coffeini-natrii benzoatis 0.6

Miss. Da. signa. 1 tablespoon 3 times a day.

A liquid dosage form for internal use was prescribed, containing a hydrophobic substance - camphor and a substance of list B - caffeine-sodium benzoate.

Sodium bromide - see recipe number 7

Camphor - see recipe number 6

Caffeine-sodium benzoate - see recipe number 2.

Checking doses of caffeine-sodium benzoate:

The total volume is 100 ml.

Number of receptions: 100 / 15 = 6

Prescription: RD = 0.6 / 6 = 0.1 SD = 0.3

According to the GF: WFD = 0.5 ERR = 1.5

Doses are not too high.

Camphor has pronounced hydrophobic properties, therefore, to prepare the suspension, we take as much gelatose as camphor.

Camphor is a hard-to-grind substance, therefore, in the manufacture we use 95% alcohol (for 1 g of the medicinal substance - 10 drops of alcohol, therefore, we take 20 drops of alcohol).

Finding the volume of water:

We find ∆V fact. = 2 x 0.26 + 0.6 x 0.65 + 2 x 0.73 = 2.37 ml

Tolerance limits: ± 3%

∆V perm. = 3 ml

Since ∆V perm. more than ∆V actual, then the increase in volume is taken into account in the manufacture.

The volume of water will be: 100 - 2.37 \u003d 97.63 ml

Technology: in a stand in 97.6 ml of purified water we dissolve 0.6 g of caffeine-sodium benzoate and 2 g of sodium bromide. We filter into another stand. We put 2 g of starch in a mortar and grind it with 20 drops of 95% alcohol, then add 2 g of gelatose and 2 ml of solution (according to Deryagin's rule), grind to a pulp. Add the remaining amount of the solution, mix and pour into an orange glass dispensing bottle.

Date ______ No. 11

Aquaepurificatae97.6 ml

Coffeini-natriibenzoatis 0.6

Sodium bromide 2.0

Spiritus aethylici XX gtts.

Gelatosae 2,0

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

12. Rp.: Terpinihydrati 3.0

Natriihydrocarbonatisana 1.0

Aquae purificatae 120 ml

Miss. Da. signa. 1 tablespoon 3 times a day.

A liquid dosage form for internal use containing a hydrophobic substance, terpinhydrate, has been prescribed.

Terpinhydrate - white transparent crystals or white crystalline powder, odorless, slightly bitter taste. Slightly soluble in water.

Sodium benzoate is a white crystalline powder, odorless or with a very slight odor, sweetish-salty taste, easily soluble in water.

Sodium bicarbonate is a white, odorless crystalline powder, salt-alkaline taste, stable in dry air, slowly decomposing in humid air. Soluble in water.

Terpinhydrate has mildly pronounced hydrophobic properties, so we take gelatoses 2 times less than terpinhydrate: 1.5 g

Total mass of substances: 1.5 + 1 + 1 = 3.5 g

3.5 - 120 ml

X \u003d 2.9 is less than 3%, therefore, the increase in volume is not taken into account in the manufacture.

The volume of water will be: 120 ml

Technology: measure 120 ml of purified water into a stand, dissolve 1 g of sodium bicarbonate and 1 g of sodium benzoate in it. We filter into another stand. We place 3 g of terpinhydrate, 1.5 g of gelatose and 2.3 g of saline solution in a mortar according to Deryagin's rule: 3 + 1.5 / 2 = 2.3). Disperse until a pulp is formed. Add the remaining amount of saline, mix and pour into a dispensing bottle.

Date ______ No. 12

Aquaepurificatae120 ml

Natriibenzoatis1.0

Natriihydrocarbonatis 1.0

Terpinihydrati3.0

Gelatosae 1,5

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

We cork with a rubber stopper, run in a metal cap. We issue the label: “Potion”, “Internal”, “Shake before use”, “Keep in a cool place”, “Keep in a dark place”, “Keep away from children”. Shelf life 3 days.

Date: 08/11/2009

Topic "Preparation of suspensions and emulsions"

She studied the classification, features of emulsion technology, emulsifiers used in the manufacture. Prepared 3 solutions, 1 emulsion (from pumpkin seeds).

Emulsion is a dosage form that is homogeneous in appearance, consisting of mutually insoluble finely dispersed liquids, for internal, external or injection use.

To maintain the aggregative stability of the emulsion, it is necessary to maintain the achieved maximum dispersion by lowering the surface tension and, thereby, the excess surface energy to its minimum value.

This is achieved by introducing substances with a surface-active effect - emulsifiers.

All emulsifiers according to their molecular structure and properties can be divided into ionic and nonionic substances.

Ionic can be:

Anionic, dissociating in water (the hydrophilic part of the molecule carries a negative charge - soaps, alginates);

Cationic (the hydrophilic part of the molecule carries a positive charge - quaternary ammonium salts);

Amphoteric (the charge changes depending on the pH of the solution - proteins, gelatin, casein, etc.).

Nonionic emulsifiers are substances whose molecules do not dissociate in solutions (cholesterol, tweens, fatty alcohols, cellulose and its derivatives, plant mucus, pectin substances, etc.).

The production of emulsions includes the following steps:

Production of primary emulsion (emulsion body);

Dilution of the primary emulsion;

Filtration;

The introduction of medicinal substances;

Package;

Registration for vacation from the pharmacy (labeling);

control at the stages of manufacture, the manufactured emulsion and when dispensing from a pharmacy.

For the preparation of oil emulsions, almond, olive, peach, sunflower, castor, vaseline, essential oils, fish oil, as well as balms and other liquids that do not mix with water.

If an emulsion is prescribed without an oil designation, then it is prepared from almond, olive, sunflower or peach oil. If there is no indication in the recipe about the amount of oil for the preparation of 100 g of emulsion, 10 g of oil is taken. Obtaining oil emulsions requires the mandatory use of an emulsifier.

Seed emulsions are prepared from various oilseeds by rubbing them with water.

In most cases, sweet almond, peanut, pumpkin, poppy seeds, etc. are used.

13. Rp.: Emulsii oleosae 160.0

Miss. Da. signa. 1 tablespoon 3 times a day.

A liquid dosage form for internal use was prescribed - an emulsion containing an odorous substance - menthol (oil-soluble).

Peach oil is a transparent liquid of light yellow color, colorless, odorless or with a slight peculiar odor, pleasant oily taste. Soluble in 60 parts of absolute alcohol, easily soluble in ether, chloroform.

Menthol is a colorless crystal with a strong peppermint odor and a cooling taste. Volatile at ordinary temperature and distilled with water vapor. Almost insoluble in water, very easy in alcohol, ether, acetic acid.

Weight total: 160 + 2 = 162 g

Peach oil: 16 g

Gelatoses: (16 + 2) / 2 = 9.0

Water for primary emulsion: (12 + 2 + 9) / 2 = 11.5

Water to dilute the primary emulsion: 162 - (16 + 2 + 9 + 11.5) = 123.5

Technology: put 9 g of gelatose in a mortar, measure out 11.5 ml of purified water, let stand for 2–3 minutes until a hydrosol forms. We weigh 16 g of peach oil into a porcelain cup and dissolve 2 g of menthol in it when heated in a water bath (up to 40 ° C). Then we add dropwise with stirring to the gelatose hydrosol a solution of menthol. The first drops emulsify to a characteristic crackle. Then, gradually adding, emulsify the rest of the oil solution. Further, with stirring, dilute the primary emulsion with water to a total mass. The emulsion is transferred to a dark glass dispensing vial. We cork tightly with a plastic cork with a screw cap.

Date ______ No. 13

Aquae purificatae 11.5ml

Olei persicorum 16.0

Aquae purificatae 123.5 ml

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

14. Rp.: Emulsiioleosae 100.0

Natriibromidi 1.0

Miss. Da. signa. 1 tablespoon 3 times a day.

Discharged liquid dosage form for internal use - emulsion.

Peach oil - see recipe number 13.

Sodium bromide - see recipe number 7.

We use peach oil for cooking. We prepare a 10% emulsion.

Weight total: 100 + 1 = 101g

Peach oil: 10 g

Gelatoses: 10 / 2 = 5.0

Water for primary emulsion: (10+ 5) / 2 = 7.5

Water to dilute the primary emulsion: 100 - (10 + 5 + 7.5) = 77.5

Technology: put 5 g of gelatose in a mortar, measure out 7.5 ml of purified water, let stand for 2-3 minutes until a hydrosol is formed. Next, add dropwise 10 g of peach oil. We get the primary emulsion. Then, in 77.5 ml of purified water we dissolve 1 g of sodium bromide. We dilute the primary emulsion with the resulting solution. Strain the emulsion into a dark glass bottle. We cork tightly with a plastic cork with a screw cap.

Date ______ No. 14

Aquae purificatae 7.5 ml

Olei persicorum 10.0

Sodium bromide 1.0

Aquae purificatae 77.5 ml

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

We issue a label: “Internal”, “Shake before use”, “Keep in a cool place”, “Keep in a dark place”, “Keep out of children”. Shelf life 3 days.

Date: 08/12/2009

I got acquainted with the factors influencing the process of extracting medicinal substances from plant materials, methods for obtaining infusions and decoctions, and the equipment used for preparation. Studied special cases of making aqueous extracts from raw materials containing tannins, essential oils, cardiac glycosides, alkaloids. I prepared 3 solutions, 2 infusions (from mint leaves and motherwort grass).

15. Rp.: Infusi herbae Adonidis 180 ml

Sodium bromide 5.0

Tincturae Valerianae 3 ml

Miss. Da. signa. 1 tablespoon 4 times a day.

Discharged liquid dosage form for internal use. Contains medicinal plant materials - Adonis grass (contains cardiac glycosides), sodium bromide, valerian tincture.

The standard raw material contains 50 - 66 ICE

Preparing the infusion 1:30.

Adonis herbs: 1 – 30

Since the raw materials are non-standard, we recalculate: x \u003d A x B / C

X \u003d 6 x 60 / 70 \u003d 5.1

Purified water:

Total volume: 183 ml

Water volume: 180 + (5.1 x 2.8) = 194.3 ml

The mass of the dissolved substance: 5 x 100 / 183 = 2.7%, which means that the increase in volume is not taken into account.

Technology: put 5.1 g of crushed adonis grass into the infunder, add 194.3 ml of purified water. We insist on a water bath for 15 minutes, then leave at room temperature for 45 minutes. Strain through a double layer of gauze, squeeze. In the finished infusion, dissolve 5 g of sodium bromide, filter into a dispensing bottle and add 3 ml of valerian tincture. We cork.

Date ______ No. 15

HerbaeAdonidisvernalis (70 LED) 5.1

Aquaepurificatae 194.3 ml

Natriibromidi 5.0

Tincturae Valerianae 3ml

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

16. Rp.: Decocti foliorum Uvae ursi 100 ml

Hexamethylentetramini 1.0

Miss. Da. signa. 1 tablespoon 2 times a day before meals.

Discharged liquid dosage form for internal use. Contains medicinal plant raw materials - bearberry leaves (the main active ingredient is arbutin).

We prepare a decoction 1:10, as the raw material of the general list.

Bearberry leaves: 10.0

Purified water: 100 + (10 x 1.4) = 114 ml

Technology: put 10 g of bearberry leaves crushed to 1 mm into the infunder, add 114 ml of purified water. We insist on a water bath for 30 minutes, then filter through a double layer of gauze, squeeze. In the finished broth, dissolve 1 g of hexamethylenetetheramine, filter into a dispensing bottle. We cork.

Date ______ No. 16

Foliorum Uvaeursi 10.0

Aquaepurificatae 114ml

Hexamethylentetramini 1,0

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

We issue labels: “Internal”, “Store in a cool, dark place”, “Keep out of the reach of children”, “Shake before use”. Shelf life 2 days.

Date: 08/13/2009

Theme "Preparation of aqueous extracts (infusions and decoctions)"

She studied special cases of making aqueous extracts from raw materials containing anthraglycosides, saponins, mucus, flavonoids. I prepared 2 solutions, 1 infusion of nettle leaves and 1 decoction of oak bark.

17. Rp.: Decocti foliorum Sennae ex 5.0 – 100 ml

Sirupisacchari 5ml

Discharged liquid dosage form - a decoction. Contains senna leaves (the main active ingredient is anthraglycosides).

Senna leaves: 5 g

Purified water: 100 + (5 x 1.8) = 109 ml

Total volume: 105 ml

Cooking decoction 1:10

Technology: put 5 g of crushed senna leaves into the infunder, add 109 ml of purified water. We insist on a water bath for 30 minutes, then leave to cool completely. We filter through a double layer of gauze, squeeze into a bottle for dispensing. Add 5 ml of sugar syrup to the broth. We cork.

Date ______ No. 17

FoliorumSennae5.0

Aquae purificatae 109 ml

Sirupi sacchari 5ml

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

We issue labels: “Internal”, “Store in a cool, dark place”, “Keep out of the reach of children”, “Shake before use”. Shelf life 2 days.

18. Rp.: Decocti rhizomata cum radicibus Sangusorbae 150 ml

Sirupisacchari10 ml

Miss. Da. signa. 1 tablespoon in the morning and at night.

Discharged liquid dosage form - a decoction. Contains rhizomes with burnet roots (the main active ingredients are tannins).

We prepare a decoction 1: 10, as the raw material of the general list.

Rhizomes with burnet roots: 15 g

Purified water: 150 + (15 x 1.7) = 175.5 ml

Total volume: 150 + 10 = 160 ml

Technology: put 15 g of crushed medicinal plant material into the infunder, add 175.5 ml of purified water. We insist on a water bath for 30 minutes, then filter through a double layer of gauze, squeeze into a bottle for dispensing. Add 10 ml of sugar syrup to the broth. We cork.

Date ______ No. 18

Rhizomatacum radicibus Sangusorbae 15.0

Aquae purificatae 175.5 ml

Sirupi sacchari 10ml

Prepared:

Checked:

Released:

We issue labels: “Internal”, “Store in a cool, dark place”, “Keep out of the reach of children”, “Shake before use”. Shelf life 2 days.

Introduction

General information about starch

The structure of starch

2.1 Amylose and amylopectin

2.2 Formation and structure of starch grains

2.3 Types of starch grains

starch classification

Physiochemical properties

Receipt

Application

6.1 V various types industry

6.2 In pharmaceutical chemistry

6.3 In medicine

6.4 In pharmaceutical technology

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Starch is the main representative of natural carbohydrates synthesized in plants and is the main source of energy for the human body.

Since ancient times, starch has been widely used in the medical field. In medical practice, it is used as an enveloping agent for inflammatory and ulcerative lesions of the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines. In analytical and pharmaceutical chemistry, it is the main indicator for iodine. In pharmaceutical technology, starch is used as a filler, binder, powdering agent.

aim term paper is the study of the structure of starch, its physical and chemical properties, production and use in various fields of life, including medicine and pharmacy.

In our country, the only scientific center of the starch industry in Russia is the All-Russian Research Institute of Starch Products (VNIIK) in the Moscow Region. The main task of the institute is the development of the latest technologies for obtaining starch from potatoes and grain raw materials (corn, wheat, sorghum, rye, barley, etc.), modified starches, molasses, glucose, glucose-fructose syrup, protein-free dietary products, as well as the design equipment for the starch industry. The All-Russian Research Institute of Starch Products carries out the whole range of works from scientific research to the development of production.

1. General information about starch

Polysaccharides are polymers of carbohydrates, consisting of many (from tens to several thousand) monosaccharide units. Many polysaccharides contain a glucose molecule as a monomer. They are synthesized by plants, animals and humans as a store of nutrients and a source of energy.

Plants store glucose in the form of starch. It is deposited mainly in tubers and seed endosperm in the form of grains. Starch-bearing plants are conditionally divided into 2 groups: plants of the cereal family and plants of other families. As an industrial product, starch is produced from wheat (Triticum vulgare L.), corn (Zea mays L.) and rice (Oryza sativum L.). From plants of other families, potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is an industrial starch plant.

2. The structure of starch

2.1 Amylose and amylopectin

starch amylose amylopectin chemistry

Starch is composed of two types of molecules, amylose (average 20-30%) and amylopectin (average 70-80%). Both types are polymers containing α-D-glucose as the monomer. These compounds are opposite in nature: amylose has a lower molecular weight and a larger volume, while amylopectin molecules are heavier but more compact.

Amylose (Fig. 1, Fig. 2) consists of 500-20,000 monomers connected by α-1,4 bonds and forming long chains, often forming a left-handed helix.

Figure 1. Part of the amylose structural molecule

Figure 2. Part of the amylose chain (volumetric image)

In amylopectin (Fig. 3, Fig. 4, Fig. 5) the monomers are also connected by α-1,4 bonds, and also, approximately every 20 residues, by α-1,6 bonds, forming branch points.

Figure 3. Structural molecule of amylopectin

Figure 4. Part of the structural molecule of aminopectin

Figure 5. Model of the branched structure of amylopectin.

Monomers linked by α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds

branch points. Monomers linked by α(1→6)-glycosidic bonds

The various branches of the amylopectin molecule are classified as A, B, and C chains. A-chains are the shortest and are connected only to B-chains, which can be connected to both A-chains and other B-chains. The ratio of A - and B-chains for most starches is from 1:1 to 1.5:1.

Grains of assimilation (primary) starch are deposited in chloroplasts in the light, which are formed with an excess of sugars - products of photosynthesis. The formation of osmotically inactive starch prevents an increase in osmotic pressure in the chloroplast. At night, when photosynthesis does not occur, assimilation starch is hydrolyzed to sugars by enzymes and transported to other parts of the plant. Spare (secondary) starch is deposited in amyloplasts (a special type of leukoplasts) of cells of various plant organs (roots, underground shoots, seeds) from sugars flowing from photosynthetic cells. If necessary, the reserve starch is also converted into sugars.

2 Formation and structure of starch grains

Starch grains are formed in the plastid stroma. The formation of starch grains begins at certain points in the plastid stroma, called educational centers. Grain growth occurs by successive deposition of layers of starch around the educational center. The main enzyme for the formation and formation of starch crystallites is granular synthase (GBSS granule bound synthase). According to one theory, starch biosynthesis occurs on the surface of the grains, and the molecules of amylose and amylopectin are oriented perpendicular to it and in opposite directions. So, on the surface of the grains, amylose has a reducing end, while amylopectin, on the contrary, has non-reducing ends, which can further branch and elongate by the enzyme starch branched synthase (SBE). In amylose, in this case, the chain is lengthened under the action of the enzyme solvent starch synthase (solub starch synthase - SSS), so the molecules of amylose and amylopectin are difficult to match and can be fractionated under certain conditions. Grains of native starches have growth rings, which are alternating layers of different density, crystallinity and resistance to chemical and enzymatic attack. Broad layers are formed as a result of alternative filling and removal of molecules in plastids with the successive deposition of large insoluble and small soluble molecules; at the same time, high molecular weight fractions of amylopectin prevail in dense layers. The degree of crystallinity of starch grains is in the range of 14-42% and depends on the ratio of the content of amylose and amylopectin. The short chains in the amylopectin molecule form double helixes that form crystalline lamellae (crystallites). Loose double helixes and crystallites create so-called semi-crystals.

The rest of the amylose molecules and the long chains of amylopectin form the amorphous portion of the starch granules.

During the synthesis of amylopectin and its crystallization, a small amount of phosphates remains associated with the hydroxyl group of the 6th carbon atom, their content in potato starch reaches 0.2%. Amylose is inherent in the formation of spirals to capture lipids located in the cytosol. The content of bound lipids in the starches of cereals and leguminous crops is 0.2 - 1.3%.

Amylose and amylopectin form a structural complex of grains, which consists of crystalline and amorphous parts. (Fig. 6).

Figure 6. The structure of the crystalline and amorphous parts of the starch layers

Adjacent layers in one grain may have different refractive index, and then they are visible under a microscope (Fig. 7)

Figure 7. Layered structure of a starch grain. The arrow indicates the educational center

The shape, size, quantity in the amyloplast, and structure (position of the educational center, layering, presence or absence of cracks) of starch grains are often specific to the plant species (Fig. 8). Usually starch grains are spherical, ovoid or lenticular in shape, but in potatoes it is irregular. The largest grains (up to 100 microns) are characteristic of potato tuber cells; in wheat grains they are of two sizes - small (2-9 microns) and larger (30-45 microns). Small grains (5-30 microns) are typical for corn grain cells.

Figure 8 different types starch grains. In oats (1), potatoes (2), milkweed (3), geraniums (4), beans (5), corn (6) and wheat (7)

3 Types of starch grains

If there is one educational center in the amyloplast, around which layers of starch are deposited, then a simple grain appears, if there are two or more, then a complex grain is formed, consisting, as it were, of several simple ones. A semi-complex grain is formed if starch is first deposited around several points, and then, after the contact of simple grains, common layers appear around them (Fig. 9)

Figure 9. Simple, semi-complex and complex starch grains

3. Starch classification

All starches are divided into two groups: natural (or native) and refined.

Refined starch is a white powder, tasteless and odorless. Purified from impurities natural starch. It is produced from starch-containing plants by grinding, boiling and refining. Found in flour, bread, pasta sold as a standalone product.

Figure 10. Classification of starch by feedstock

Wheat grain is the most ancient type of raw material for the production of starch. When using such raw materials, wheat starch is produced.

Potato is one of the main raw materials for the production of starch. Potato starch is obtained from this raw material.

Tapioca starch - is an analogue of potato starch and is produced in Asia from the root of the cassava legume (cassava).

When processing rice, flour and scrap (crushed grain) are obtained. They are the most suitable raw material for the production of highly valuable rice starch.

For the production of sorghum starch, an annual plant of the sorghum genus Sorghum Moench, which belongs to the cereal family, is used.

In the process of starch modification, the following types of starch are obtained:

split (hydrolyzed);

· oxidized;

swelling;

· dialdehyde;

substituted.

Modified starch is a specially processed starch, which, due to its composition, is better absorbed.

Modified starch is made from natural corn or potato starch, and modified starch does not apply to genetically modified foods. It is modified (from the German modifizieren - to modify, transform) without the help of genetics. There are various physical and chemical methods of processing natural starch, thanks to which it is possible to obtain its varieties with predetermined properties. As a result of modifications, starch acquires the ability to retain moisture in various environments, which makes it possible to obtain a product of a given consistency.

4. Physical and chemical properties

Starch is a white or slightly creamy powder. Practically insoluble in 95% alcohol, soluble in boiling water to form a clear or slightly opalescent solution that does not solidify on cooling. The solubility of starch components in water varies. Amylose is highly soluble in warm water and amylopectin is bad. It forms colloidal solutions. The method of separation of starch components is based on different solubility in water. When grinding starch, a characteristic creak is heard.

Starch undergoes acid hydrolysis, which proceeds stepwise and randomly. When splitting, it first turns into polymers with a lower degree of polymerization - dextrins, then into the disaccharide maltose, and finally into glucose. Thus, a whole set of saccharides is obtained.

Starch is hydrolyzed by the enzyme α-amylase (contained in saliva and secreted by the pancreas), which randomly cleaves α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. β-amylase (present in malt) acts on α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds, starting from the non-reducing terminal glucose residue, and sequentially cleaves off the maltose disaccharide molecule from the polymer chain. Glucoamylase (contained in mold fungi), like the other two amylases, hydrolyzes α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds, sequentially cleaving off D-glucose residues, starting from the non-reducing end. Selective cleavage of α(1→6)-glycosidic bonds of amylopectin occurs with α-1,6-glucosidases, for example, isoamylase or pullulanase.

Amylase isolated from Bacillus macerans is able to convert starch into cyclic products (cyclodextrins, Shardinger dextrins), in which the degree of polymerization is 6-8, and glucose residues are linked by α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds.

Being a polyhydric alcohol, starch forms ethers and esters. A characteristic qualitative reaction to starch is its reaction with iodine (starch iodine reaction):

When iodine interacts with starch, an inclusion compound (clathrate) of the channel type is formed. A clathrate is a complex compound in which particles of one substance ("guest molecules") are introduced into crystal structure"host molecules". Amylose molecules act as "host molecules" and iodine molecules act as "guests". Iodine molecules are located in the channel of the ~1 nm diameter spiral created by the amylose molecule in the form of chains ×××I×××I×××I×××I×××I×××. Getting into the helix, iodine molecules are strongly influenced by their environment (OH groups), as a result of which the I-I bond length increases to 0.306 nm (in the iodine molecule, the bond length is 0.267 nm). Moreover, this length is the same for all iodine atoms in the chain (Fig. 11). This process accompanied by a change in the brown color of iodine to blue-violet (l max 620-680 nm). Amylopectin, unlike amylose, gives a red-violet color with iodine (l max 520-555 nm).

Figure 11. Interaction of iodine with starch

Dextrins formed during the heat treatment of starch, acid or enzymatic hydrolysis, also react with iodine. However, the color of the complex strongly depends on the molar mass of the polymer (Table 1)

Low molecular weight dextrins begin to show external signs of reactions of the aldehyde form of glucose, because as the polymer chain decreases, the proportion of reducing terminal glucose residues increases.

Table 1 Color reactions of dextrins with iodine

5. Receipt

The main raw materials for starch are potatoes and corn. The production process consists mainly of mechanical operations and is based on two properties of starch grains: their insolubility in cold water and their small size with a relatively high density.

To obtain high-quality finished products, the good quality of raw materials (raw potatoes) is very important, and sometimes decisive. During the processing of raw materials, raw starch is produced, which is not suitable for long-term storage, then dry starch and starch products are obtained from it.

For the production of starch, potatoes are grown in starchy, high-yielding, disease-resistant varieties. The quality of the produced starch is negatively affected by the increased content of vegetable proteins, amino acids, and solanine in potatoes. Proteins, being foaming agents, make it difficult to wash starch grains, contaminate starch, settling on it in the form of flakes. Due to the oxidation of the amino acid tyrosine, melanins are formed. They are adsorbed by starch and worsen its color. Tyrosine also gives colored compounds with iron ions. Solanine is a strong foaming agent. The ash elements remaining in the starch affect the viscosity and adhesiveness of the pastes.

The potato starch production technology includes several stages, such as: preparation of raw materials for processing (washing, separation of impurities); crushing tubers; isolation from the resulting mass (porridge) of potato juice and broken cell walls (pulp); purification of starch from impurities; drying and packaging of starch (Fig. 12)

stage. Preparation of raw materials for processing: separation from heavy impurities and washing of potatoes. Potatoes from the recycling warehouse are fed to a drum-type stone trap, then to the sink. Potato tubers are well washed from the soil in special sinks, while separating straw, stones and other contaminants.

stage. Shredding potatoes. The tubers washed from dirt are crushed by abrasion or fine crushing in order to open the cells of the tuber tissues and release the starch grains. Potatoes are crushed twice into a porridge on high-speed graters or crushing machines with impact action.

After crushing the tubers, which ensures the disclosure of most of the cells, a mixture is obtained, consisting of starch, almost completely destroyed cell membranes, a certain amount of undestroyed cells and potato juice. This mixture is called potato porridge.

Stage 3. Isolation from the resulting mass (porridge) of potato juice and broken cell walls (pulp). The crushed mass is sent to centrifuges to separate the juice, which contributes to the darkening of starch, reducing the viscosity of the paste, and the development of microbiological processes. From the pulp, starch is washed with water on sieves.

The starch milk obtained after washing the porridge is supplied to the separation of juice water by sedimentation centrifuges. Juice water is removed, and raw starch, diluted with fresh water, is sent for refining in the form of milk.

stage. Purification of starch from impurities. Refined starch milk still contains a small amount of the remains of soluble substances and the smallest: particles of pulp. Therefore, it is sent to the final cleaning operation - washing in continuously operating hydrocyclone stations. After mechanical separation of water, raw starch with a moisture content of about 50% is obtained. part of the starch with reduced quality.

stage. Drying and packaging of starch. Raw starch does not store well due to its high moisture content. Therefore, immediately after development, it is advisable to dehydrate it (in centrifuges), and then either immediately dry it or process it to obtain other types of finished products. Raw starch is dried in a spray dryer with moderately hot air.

Purified dry starch is packed in bags and small packages. Potato starch is packed in double fabric or paper bags, as well as bags with polyethylene liners weighing no more than 50 kg. Then they are weighed on a scale and sewn up on a bag sewing machine.

6. Application

6.1 In various industries

The use of starch has found its place in many industries. Starch is used in food, textile, paper, chemical, rubber, pharmaceutical, perfume and other industries, and is also used by the population for personal consumption (preparation of kissels and sauces, starching of linen). The paper industry is the largest consumer of starch, due to its specific properties and renewable resources. Different types of starch are used in different stages of paper production. Starch is added to improve the appearance and typographic properties of paper, increase strength. In the textile industry, starches are used for sizing, sizing and the preparation of thickening compounds (thickeners). The food industry is one of the largest consumers of starch. A large amount of starch is sold as a final product for home use. Starches are used in the food industry for one or more of the following purposes:

· Directly as gelatinized starch, jelly, etc.

As a thickening agent due to its viscous properties (in soups, baby food, sauces, gravies, etc.)

As a filler, which is part of the solid content of soups, pies

· As a binder to fix the mass and prevent drying during cooking (sausages and meat products).

· As stabilizers, due to the high ability of starch to retain moisture.

Glue production.

6.2 In pharmaceutical chemistry

In analytical and pharmaceutical chemistry, starch is used as an indicator for iodine in the method of iodometry and other titrimetric methods (SP XI, issue 2, pp. 88-89).

indicator solution. 1 g of soluble starch is mixed with 5 ml of water until a homogeneous gruel is obtained, and the mixture is slowly poured into 100 ml of boiling water with constant stirring. Boil for 2 minutes until a slightly opalescent liquid is obtained.

The shelf life of the solution is 3 days.

Note. When preparing an indicator solution from potato starch, the paste obtained in the above manner is additionally heated in an autoclave at 120°C for 1 hour.

starch solution with potassium iodide. Dissolve 0.5 g of potassium iodide in 100 ml of freshly prepared starch solution. The shelf life of the solution is 1 day.

Starch iodine paper. Deprived paper filters are impregnated with a solution of starch with potassium iodide and dried in a dark room in air that does not contain acid vapors. The paper is cut into strips about 50 mm long and about 6 mm wide. A strip of starch-iodine paper should not immediately turn blue when wetted with 1 drop of hydrochloric acid solution (0.1 mol/l).

Starch iodine paper is stored in orange glass jars with ground stoppers in a place protected from light.

3 In medicine

Starch is also used as a powder for burns and diaper rash in children. Starch in cotton wool, in the form of a dry compress, is recommended for erysipelas. With hemp or sunflower oil in the form of an ointment, it is used for inflammation of the mammary gland (mastitis).

4 In pharmaceutical technology

Starch is widely used in the manufacture of various dosage forms as an independent medicinal substance and as an auxiliary component. It is an active or indifferent agent in powders, a filler, a binder and powder in tablets, an emulsifier in emulsions, and as an adhesive in the manufacture of pills.

Conclusion

Starch has a high nutritional value and is widely used in various industries. Its importance in chemistry and pharmacy is enormous. Without studying the physicochemical properties of starch, it is impossible to improve the methods of research and manufacture of medicines, food production technologies.

In the course of this work, the following was studied:

1. the structure of starch, its microstructure, constituent components (amylose and amylopectin), their characteristics that affect the properties of starch;

2. the process of starch synthesis in plants and the formation of starch grains;

Types of starch grains and their diversity in different types of plants;

Classification of starch by feedstock;

Physico-chemical properties that contribute to its use by humans in various areas of life;

Technology for obtaining starch from potato tubers;

The use of starch in medicine, chemical, pharmaceutical, food, textile and other industries.

At present, the technologies of potato starch and corn starch production are being improved, new types of centrifugal grinding machines, arc sieves, including pressure sieves, hydrocyclones, pneumatic dryers have been developed and introduced.

Developments on the use of enzyme preparations for the hydrolysis of starch have become epochal. The main result of research in this area is the creation of a new glucose technology using enzyme preparations and single-stage glucose crystallization.

With the introduction of a new method of starch hydrolysis, technologies have been developed for such sugary starch products as granulated glucose, maltin, glucose-fructose syrups, etc.

In 2001 and 2003 International conferences on starch were successfully held in Moscow. Experts from many countries of the world took part in their work.

Bibliography

1. State Pharmacopoeia of the USSR. 11th ed. Issue. 2. M.: Medicine

2. Nikolai Rufeevich Andreev. Fundamentals of the production of native starches

3. Technology of processing crop products / Ed. N. M. Lichko. - M.: Kolos 2000 Series "Textbooks and study guides for university students".

Pharmaceutical technology. Ed. Krasnyuka I.I. and Mikhailova G.V. M.: Academy, 2007

5. Kharkevich D.A. Pharmacology. M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2006.

Kretovich V.L. Fundamentals of plant biochemistry. Moscow: Higher school, 1971.

Mashkovsky M.D. Medicines. M.: Medicine, 2002.

8. A. Buléon, P. Colonna, V. Planchot and S. Ball, Starch granules: structure and biosynthesis, Int. J Biol. macromol. 1998

9. S. Jobling, Improved starch for food and industrial applications, Curr. Opin. Plant biol. 2004

L. Copeland, J. Blazek, H. Salman and M. C. Tang, Form and functionality of starch, Food Hydrocolloids 2009

11. Starch. Structure, physical and chemical properties. http://www.sev-chem.narod.ru/spravochnik/teoriya/krahmal.htm

Synthesis, formation of starch grains http://www.sergey-osetrov.narod.ru/Raw_material/Structure_characteristic_categorization_starch.htm

Structure of amylose and amylopectin http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/547starch.html

Structure, properties of starch http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hysta.html

Website of the All-Russian Research Institute of Starch Products (VNIIK) http://www.arrisp.ru/index.shtml

Starch(C 6 H 10 O 5) n - amorphous white powder, tasteless and odorless, poorly soluble in water, forms a colloidal solution (paste) in hot water. Starch macromolecules are made up of a large numberα-glucose residues. Starch consists of two fractions: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose has linear molecules, amylopectin has branched ones.

biological role.

Starch is one of the products of photosynthesis, the main nutrient reserve substance of plants. Starch is the main carbohydrate in human food.

Receipt.

Starch is obtained most often from potatoes. To do this, the potatoes are crushed, washed with water and pumped into large vessels, where settling takes place. The resulting starch is washed again with water, settled and dried in a stream of warm air.

Chemical properties.

1. With iodine, starch gives a violet color.

2. Starch is a polyhydric alcohol.

3. Starch is relatively easily hydrolyzed in an acidic environment and under the action of enzymes:

(C 6 H 10 O 5)n + nH 2 O → nC 6 H 12 O 6

glucose starch

Depending on the conditions, the hydrolysis of starch can proceed in steps, with the formation of various intermediate products:

(C 6 H 10 O 5)n → (C 6 H 10 0 5) x → (C 6 H 10 0 5) y → C 12 H 22 O 11 → nC 6 H 12 O 6

soluble starch dextrins maltose glucose starch

There is a gradual splitting of macromolecules.

Application of starch.

Starch is used in the confectionery industry (obtaining glucose and molasses), is a raw material for the production of ethyl, n- butyl alcohol, acetone, citric acid, glycerin and so on. It is used in medicine as fillers (in ointments and powders), as an adhesive.

Starch is a valuable nutritious product. To facilitate its absorption, foods containing starch are exposed to high temperatures, that is, potatoes are boiled, bread is baked. Under these conditions, partial hydrolysis of starch occurs and dextrins, soluble in water. Dextrins in the digestive tract undergo further hydrolysis to glucose, which is absorbed by the body. Excess glucose is converted to glycogen(animal starch). The composition of glycogen is the same as that of starch, - (C 6 H 10 O 5) n, but its molecules are more branched.

starch as a nutrient.

1. Starch is the main carbohydrate in our food, but it cannot be absorbed by the body on its own.

2. Like fats, starch first undergoes hydrolysis.

3. This process begins already when chewing food in the mouth under the action of an enzyme contained in saliva.

5. The resulting glucose is absorbed through the walls of the intestine into the blood and enters the liver, and from there to all tissues of the body.

6. Excess glucose is deposited in the liver in the form of a high molecular weight carbohydrate - glycogen.

Features of glycogen: a) in terms of structure, glycogen differs from starch in the greater branching of its molecules; b) this reserve glycogen between meals is again converted into glucose as it is consumed in the cells of the body.

7. Intermediate products of starch hydrolysis (dextrins) are more easily absorbed by the body than starch itself, as they consist of smaller molecules and are more soluble in water.

8. Cooking is often associated with the conversion of starch into dextrins.

The use of starch and its production from starch-containing products.

1. Starch is used not only as a food product.

2. In the food industry, glucose and molasses are prepared from it.

3. To obtain glucose, starch is heated with dilute sulfuric acid for several hours.

4. When the hydrolysis process is over, the acid is neutralized with chalk, the resulting precipitate of calcium sulfate is filtered off and the solution is evaporated.

5. If the hydrolysis process is not completed, then the result is a thick sweet mass - a mixture of dextrins and glucose - molasses.

Features of molasses: a) it is used in confectionery for the preparation of certain varieties of sweets, marmalade, gingerbread, etc.; b) with molasses, confectionery products do not seem cloyingly sweet, like those cooked with pure sugar, and remain soft for a long time.

6. Dextrins derived from starch are used as adhesives. Starch is used for starching linen: under the influence of heating with a hot iron, it turns into dextrins, which stick together the fibers of the fabric and form a dense film that protects the fabric from rapid contamination.

7. Starch is obtained most often from potatoes. The potatoes are washed, then chopped on mechanical graters, the chopped mass is washed on sieves with water.

8. Small grains of starch released from the tuber cells pass through a sieve with water and settle at the bottom of the vat. The starch is thoroughly washed, separated from the water and dried.