SIP panels / 08.07.2021

Levels of interconnection between the endocrine and nervous systems. The relationship of the nervous and endocrine systems What regulates the nervous and endocrine systems

Neurons are building blocks for the human "message system", there are entire networks of neurons that transmit signals between the brain and body. These organized networks, which include more than a trillion neurons, create the so-called nervous system. It consists of two parts: the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral (nerves and nerve networks throughout the body)

Endocrine system part of the body's information transmission system. Uses glands throughout the body that regulate many processes such as metabolism, digestion, blood pressure, and growth. Among the most important endocrine glands are the pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, ovaries and testicles.

central nervous system(CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system(PNS) consists of nerves that extend beyond the central nervous system. The PNS can be further divided into two different nervous systems: somatic and vegetative.

somatic nervous system: The somatic nervous system transmits physical sensations and commands to movements and actions.

autonomic nervous system: The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion and blood pressure. This system is also associated with emotional responses such as sweating and crying.

10. Lower and higher nervous activity.

Lower nervous activity (NND) - directed to the internal environment of the body. This is a set of neurophysiological processes that ensure the implementation of unconditioned reflexes and instincts. This is the activity of the Spinal Cord and the brain stem, which ensures the regulation of the activity of internal organs and their interconnection, thanks to which the body functions as a single whole.

Higher nervous activity (HNI) - directed towards the external environment. This is a set of neurophysiological processes that provide conscious and subconscious processing of information, assimilation of information, adaptive behavior to environment and training in ontogeny for all types of activities, including purposeful behavior in society.

11. Physiology of adaptation and stress.

Adaptation Syndrome:

The first is called the anxiety stage. This stage is associated with the mobilization of the body's defense mechanisms, an increase in the level of adrenaline in the blood.

The next stage is called the stage of resistance or resistance. This stage is distinguished by the highest level of body resistance to the action of harmful factors, which reflects the ability to maintain the state of homeostasis.

If the impact of the stressor continues, then as a result, the “energy of adaptation”, i.e. the adaptive mechanisms involved in maintaining the resistance stage will exhaust themselves. Then the organism enters the final stage - the stage of exhaustion, when the survival of the organism may be threatened.

The human body deals with stress in the following ways:

1. Stressors are analyzed in the higher parts of the cerebral cortex, after which certain signals are sent to the muscles responsible for movement, preparing the body to respond to the stressor.

2. The stressor also affects the autonomic nervous system. The pulse quickens, blood pressure rises, the level of erythrocytes and blood sugar rises, breathing becomes frequent and intermittent. This increases the amount of oxygen supplied to the tissues. The person is ready to fight or flee.

3. From the analyzer sections of the cortex, signals enter the hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The adrenal glands regulate the release of adrenaline into the blood, which is a common fast-acting stimulant.

The endocrine system plays extremely important role in our body. If the function of internal secretion of one of the glands is disturbed, then this causes certain changes in others. The nervous and endocrine systems coordinate and regulate the functions of all other systems and organs, ensure the unity of the body. In humans, damage to the nervous system can occur with endocrine pathology.

What endocrine pathologies cause damage to the nervous system

Diabetes mellitus leads to neurological disorders in almost half of patients. The severity and frequency of such lesions of the nervous system depend on the duration of the course, blood sugar levels, the frequency of decompensation and the type of diabetes. Vascular and metabolic disorders are of primary importance in the occurrence and development of the disease process in the body. Fructose and sorbitol have osmotic (leaking) activity. Their accumulation is accompanied by dystrophic changes and edema in the tissues. In addition, in diabetes, the metabolism of proteins, fats, phospholipids, water and electrolyte metabolism is noticeably disturbed, and vitamin deficiency develops. Damage to the nervous system includes a variety of psychopathic and neurotic changes that cause depression in patients. Polyneuropathy is typical. In the initial stages, it is manifested by painful leg cramps (mainly at night), paresthesia (numbness). In the advanced stage, pronounced trophic and vegetative disorders are characteristic, which predominate in the feet. Possible cranial nerve damage. Most often oculomotor and facial.

Hypothyroidism (or myxedema) can cause widespread damage to the nervous system with vascular and metabolic disorders. In this case, there is a slowness of attention and thinking, there is increased drowsiness, depression. Less commonly, doctors diagnose cerebellar ataxia, which is caused by an atrophic process in the cerebellum, myopathic syndrome (pain on palpation and muscle movement, pseudohypertrophy of the calf muscles), myotonic syndrome (with strong compression of the hands, there is no muscle relaxation). Along with myxedema, 10% of patients develop mononeuropathies (especially carpal tunnel syndrome). These phenomena are reduced (or completely disappear) with hormone replacement therapy.

Hyperthyroidism most often in neurological practice is manifested by panic attacks, the occurrence (or increase) of migraine attacks, and psychotic disorders.

Hypoparathyroidism is accompanied by hyperphosphatemia and hypocalcemia. With this endocrine pathology in the human nervous system, symptoms of autonomic polyneuropathy and an increase in the musculoskeletal system are noted. There is a decrease in cognitive (brain) functions: memory loss, inappropriate behavior, speech disorders. Epileptic seizures may also occur.

Hyperparathyroidism due to hypophosphatemia and hypercalcemia also leads to damage to the nervous system. Such patients have great weakness, memory loss, increased muscle fatigue.

CHAPTER 1. INTERACTION OF THE NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The human body consists of cells that combine into tissues and systems - all this as a whole is a single supersystem of the body. Myriads of cellular elements would not be able to work as a whole, if the body did not have a complex mechanism of regulation. A special role in the regulation is played by the nervous system and the system of endocrine glands. The nature of the processes occurring in the central nervous system is largely determined by the state of endocrine regulation. So androgens and estrogens form the sexual instinct, many behavioral reactions. Obviously, neurons, just like other cells in our body, are under the control of the humoral regulatory system. The nervous system, evolutionarily later, has both control and subordinate connections with the endocrine system. These two regulatory systems complement each other, form a functionally unified mechanism, which ensures high efficiency neurohumoral regulation, puts it at the head of systems that coordinate all life processes in a multicellular organism. The regulation of the constancy of the internal environment of the body, which occurs according to the feedback principle, is very effective for maintaining homeostasis, but cannot fulfill all the tasks of adapting the body. For example, the adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones in response to hunger, illness, emotional arousal, and so on. So that the endocrine system can "respond" to light, sounds, smells, emotions, etc. there must be a connection between the endocrine glands and the nervous system.

1.1 a brief description of systems

The autonomic nervous system permeates our entire body like the thinnest web. It has two branches: excitation and inhibition. The sympathetic nervous system is the excitatory part, it puts us in a state of readiness to face challenge or danger. Nerve endings secrete neurotransmitters that stimulate the adrenal glands to release strong hormones - adrenaline and norepinephrine. They in turn increase the heart rate and respiratory rate, and act on the digestion process through the release of acid in the stomach. This creates a sucking sensation in the stomach. Parasympathetic nerve endings secrete other mediators that reduce the pulse and respiratory rate. Parasympathetic responses are relaxation and balance.

1.2 Interaction of the endocrine and nervous system

The pituitary gland can receive signals about what is happening in the body, but it has no direct connection with the external environment. Meanwhile, in order for environmental factors not to constantly disrupt the vital activity of the organism, the body must be adapted to changing conditions. external conditions. The body learns about external influences through the sense organs, which transmit the received information to the central nervous system. Being the supreme gland of the endocrine system, the pituitary gland itself obeys the central nervous system and in particular the hypothalamus. This higher vegetative center constantly coordinates and regulates the activity of various parts of the brain and all internal organs. Heart rate, blood vessel tone, body temperature, the amount of water in the blood and tissues, the accumulation or consumption of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts - in a word, the existence of our body, the constancy of its internal environment is under the control of the hypothalamus. Most of the nervous and humoral pathways of regulation converge at the level of the hypothalamus and due to this, a single neuroendocrine regulatory system is formed in the body. Axons of neurons located in the cerebral cortex and subcortical formations approach the cells of the hypothalamus. These axons secrete various neurotransmitters that have both activating and inhibitory effects on the secretory activity of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus “turns” the nerve impulses coming from the brain into endocrine stimuli, which can be strengthened or weakened depending on the humoral signals coming to the hypothalamus from the glands and tissues subordinate to it.

The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland using both nerve connections and the blood vessel system. The blood that enters the anterior pituitary gland necessarily passes through the median eminence of the hypothalamus and is enriched there with hypothalamic neurohormones. Neurohormones are substances of a peptide nature, which are parts of protein molecules. To date, seven neurohormones, the so-called liberins (that is, liberators), have been discovered that stimulate the synthesis of tropic hormones in the pituitary gland. And three neurohormones - prolactostatin, melanostatin and somatostatin - on the contrary, inhibit their production. Other neurohormones include vasopressin and oxytocin. Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscles of the uterus during childbirth, the production of milk by the mammary glands. Vasopressin is actively involved in the regulation of the transport of water and salts through cell membranes, under its influence, the lumen of blood vessels decreases and, consequently, blood pressure rises. Due to the fact that this hormone has the ability to retain water in the body, it is often called antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The main point of application of ADH is the renal tubules, where it stimulates the reabsorption of water from the primary urine into the blood. Neurohormones are produced by the nerve cells of the nuclei of the hypothalamus, and then they are transported along their own axons (nerve processes) to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and from here these hormones enter the bloodstream, having a complex effect on the body systems.

Tropins formed in the pituitary gland not only regulate the activity of subordinate glands, but also perform independent endocrine functions. For example, prolactin has a lactogenic effect, and also inhibits the processes of cell differentiation, increases the sensitivity of the sex glands to gonadotropins, and stimulates parental instinct. Corticotropin is not only a stimulator of sterdogenesis, but also an activator of lipolysis in adipose tissue, as well as an important participant in the process of converting short-term memory into long-term memory in the brain. Growth hormone can stimulate activity immune system, metabolism of lipids, sugars, etc. Also, some hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland can be formed not only in these tissues. For example, somatostatin (a hypothalamic hormone that inhibits the formation and secretion of growth hormone) is also found in the pancreas, where it inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Some substances act in both systems; they can be both hormones (i.e. products of the endocrine glands) and mediators (products of certain neurons). This dual role is played by norepinephrine, somatostatin, vasopressin, and oxytocin, as well as transmitters of the diffuse intestinal nervous system, such as cholecystokinin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide.

However, one should not think that the hypothalamus and pituitary gland only give orders, lowering the "guiding" hormones along the chain. They themselves sensitively analyze the signals coming from the periphery, from the endocrine glands. The activity of the endocrine system is carried out on the basis of the universal principle of feedback. An excess of hormones of one or another endocrine gland inhibits the release of a specific pituitary hormone responsible for the work of this gland, and a deficiency induces the pituitary gland to increase the production of the corresponding triple hormone. The mechanism of interaction between the neurohormones of the hypothalamus, the triple hormones of the pituitary gland and the hormones of the peripheral endocrine glands in a healthy body has been worked out by a long evolutionary development and is very reliable. However, a failure in one link of this complex chain is enough to cause a violation of quantitative, and sometimes even qualitative, relationships in the whole system, resulting in various endocrine diseases.

CHAPTER 2. BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE THALAMUS

2.1 Brief anatomy

The bulk of the diencephalon (20g) is the thalamus. A paired organ of an ovoid shape, the anterior part of which is pointed (anterior tubercle), and the posterior expanded (cushion) hangs over the geniculate bodies. The left and right thalamus are connected by an interthalamic commissure. The gray matter of the thalamus is divided by plates of white matter into anterior, medial, and lateral parts. Speaking of the thalamus, they also include the metathalamus (geniculate bodies), which belongs to the thalamic region. The thalamus is the most developed in humans. The thalamus (thalamus), the visual tubercle, is a nuclear complex in which the processing and integration of almost all signals going to the cerebral cortex from the spinal cord, midbrain, cerebellum, and basal ganglia of the brain takes place.

The human body consists of cells that combine into tissues and systems - all this as a whole is a single supersystem of the body. Myriads of cellular elements would not be able to work as a whole, if the body did not have a complex mechanism of regulation. A special role in the regulation is played by the nervous system and the system of endocrine glands. The nature of the processes occurring in the central nervous system is largely determined by the state of endocrine regulation. So androgens and estrogens form the sexual instinct, many behavioral reactions. Obviously, neurons, just like other cells in our body, are under the control of the humoral regulatory system. The nervous system, evolutionarily later, has both control and subordinate connections with the endocrine system. These two regulatory systems complement each other, form a functionally unified mechanism, which ensures the high efficiency of neurohumoral regulation, puts it at the head of systems that coordinate all life processes in a multicellular organism. The regulation of the constancy of the internal environment of the body, which occurs according to the feedback principle, is very effective for maintaining homeostasis, but cannot fulfill all the tasks of adapting the body. For example, the adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones in response to hunger, illness, emotional arousal, etc. In order for the endocrine system to “respond” to light, sounds, smells, emotions, etc., there must be a connection between the endocrine glands and the nervous system .

1. 1 Brief description of the system

1.2 Interaction of the endocrine and nervous system

The pituitary gland can receive signals about what is happening in the body, but it has no direct connection with the external environment. Meanwhile, in order for the factors of the external environment not to constantly disrupt the vital activity of the organism, the adaptation of the body to changing external conditions must be carried out. The body learns about external influences through the sense organs, which transmit the received information to the central nervous system. Being the supreme gland of the endocrine system, the pituitary gland itself obeys the central nervous system and in particular the hypothalamus. This higher vegetative center constantly coordinates and regulates the activity of various parts of the brain and all internal organs. Heart rate, blood vessel tone, body temperature, the amount of water in the blood and tissues, the accumulation or consumption of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts - in a word, the existence of our body, the constancy of its internal environment is under the control of the hypothalamus. Most of the nervous and humoral pathways of regulation converge at the level of the hypothalamus and due to this, a single neuroendocrine regulatory system is formed in the body. Axons of neurons located in the cerebral cortex and subcortical formations approach the cells of the hypothalamus. These axons secrete various neurotransmitters that have both activating and inhibitory effects on the secretory activity of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus “turns” the nerve impulses coming from the brain into endocrine stimuli, which can be strengthened or weakened depending on the humoral signals coming to the hypothalamus from the glands and tissues subordinate to it.

and is enriched there with hypothalamic neurohormones. Neurohormones are substances of a peptide nature, which are parts of protein molecules. To date, seven neurohormones, the so-called liberins (that is, liberators), have been discovered that stimulate the synthesis of tropic hormones in the pituitary gland. And three neurohormones - prolactostatin, melanostatin and somatostatin - on the contrary, inhibit their production. Other neurohormones include vasopressin and oxytocin. Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscles of the uterus during childbirth, the production of milk by the mammary glands. Vasopressin is actively involved in the regulation of the transport of water and salts through cell membranes, under its influence, the lumen of blood vessels decreases and, consequently, blood pressure rises. Due to the fact that this hormone has the ability to retain water in the body, it is often called antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The main point of application of ADH is the renal tubules, where it stimulates the reabsorption of water from the primary urine into the blood. Neurohormones are produced by the nerve cells of the nuclei of the hypothalamus, and then they are transported along their own axons (nerve processes) to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and from here these hormones enter the bloodstream, having a complex effect on the body systems.

processes of cell differentiation, increases the sensitivity of the sex glands to gonadotropins, stimulates the parental instinct. Corticotropin is not only a stimulator of sterdogenesis, but also an activator of lipolysis in adipose tissue, as well as an important participant in the process of converting short-term memory into long-term memory in the brain. Growth hormone can stimulate the activity of the immune system, the metabolism of lipids, sugars, etc. Also, some hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland can be formed not only in these tissues. For example, somatostatin (a hypothalamic hormone that inhibits the formation and secretion of growth hormone) is also found in the pancreas, where it inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Some substances act in both systems; they can be both hormones (i.e., products of the endocrine glands) and mediators (products of certain neurons). This dual role is played by norepinephrine, somatostatin, vasopressin, and oxytocin, as well as transmitters of the diffuse intestinal nervous system, such as cholecystokinin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide.

CHAPTER 2. BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE THALAMUS

2.1 Brief anatomy

ganglia of the brain. In the nuclei of the thalamus, the information coming from the extero-, proprioreceptors and interoreceptors is switched and thalamocortical pathways begin. Given that the geniculate bodies are the subcortical centers of vision and hearing, and the frenulum node and the anterior visual nucleus are involved in the analysis of olfactory signals, it can be argued that the thalamus as a whole is a subcortical "station" for all types of sensitivity. Here, the stimuli of the external and internal environment are integrated, after which they enter the cerebral cortex.

The visual hillock is the center of the organization and realization of instincts, drives, emotions. The ability to receive information about the state of many body systems allows the thalamus to participate in the regulation and determination functional state organism. In general (this is confirmed by the presence of about 120 multifunctional nuclei in the thalamus).

2. 3 Functions of the nuclei of the thalamus

share of the bark. Lateral - in the parietal, temporal, occipital lobes of the cortex. The nuclei of the thalamus are functionally divided into specific, nonspecific and associative, according to the nature of the incoming and outgoing pathways.

2. 3. 1 Specific sensory and non-sensory nuclei

Specific nuclei include the anterior ventral, medial, ventrolateral, postlateral, postmedial, lateral, and medial geniculate bodies. The latter belong to the subcortical centers of vision and hearing, respectively. The basic functional unit of specific thalamic nuclei are "relay" neurons, which have few dendrites and a long axon; their function is to switch information going to the cerebral cortex from skin, muscle and other receptors.

In turn, specific (relay) nuclei are divided into sensory and non-sensory. From specific sensory nuclei, information about the nature of sensory stimuli enters strictly defined areas of III-IV layers of the cerebral cortex. Violation of the function of specific nuclei leads to the loss of specific types of sensitivity, since the nuclei of the thalamus, like the cerebral cortex, have somatotopic localization. Individual neurons of specific nuclei of the thalamus are excited by receptors of only their own type. Signals from the receptors of the skin, eyes, ear, and muscular system go to the specific nuclei of the thalamus. Signals from the interoreceptors of the projection zones of the vagus and celiac nerves, the hypothalamus also converge here. The lateral geniculate body has direct efferent connections with the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex and afferent connections with the retina and anterior colliculi. The neurons of the lateral geniculate bodies react differently to color stimuli, turning on and off the light, i.e., they can perform a detector function. The medial geniculate body receives afferent impulses from the lateral loop and from the inferior tubercles of the quadrigeminae. Efferent paths from the medial geniculate bodies go to the temporal cortex, reaching the primary auditory cortex there.

nuclei are projected into the limbic cortex, from where the axon connections go to the hippocampus and again to the hypothalamus, resulting in the formation of a neural circle, the movement of excitation along which ensures the formation of emotions (“the emotional ring of Peipets”). In this regard, the anterior nuclei of the thalamus are considered as part of the limbic system. The ventral nuclei are involved in the regulation of movement, thus performing a motor function. In these nuclei, impulses are switched from the basal ganglia, the dentate nucleus of the cerebellum, the red nucleus of the midbrain, which is then projected into the motor and premotor cortex. Through these nuclei of the thalamus, complex motor programs formed in the cerebellum and basal ganglia are transferred to the motor cortex.

2. 3. 2 Non-specific nuclei

neurons and are functionally considered as a derivative of the reticular formation of the brain stem. The neurons of these nuclei form their connections according to the reticular type. Their axons rise to the cerebral cortex and contact with all its layers, forming diffuse connections. Nonspecific nuclei receive connections from the reticular formation of the brain stem, hypothalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia, and specific thalamic nuclei. Thanks to these connections, the nonspecific nuclei of the thalamus act as an intermediary between the brain stem and cerebellum, on the one hand, and the neocortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia, on the other hand, uniting them into a single functional complex.

2. 3. 3 Associative cores

multipolar, bipolar three-pronged neurons, i.e., neurons capable of performing polysensory functions. A number of neurons change activity only with simultaneous complex stimulation. Pillow phenomena), speech and visual functions (integration of the word with the visual image), as well as in the perception of the “body scheme”. receives impulses from the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamic nuclei, central gray matter of the trunk. The projection of this nucleus extends to the associative frontal and limbic cortex. It is involved in the formation of emotional and behavioral motor activity. Lateral nuclei receive visual and auditory impulses from the geniculate bodies and somatosensory impulses from the ventral nucleus.

Motor reactions are integrated in the thalamus with autonomic processes that provide these movements.

CHAPTER 3. COMPOSITION OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM AND ITS PURPOSE

The structures of the limbic system include 3 complexes. The first complex is the ancient bark, olfactory bulbs, olfactory tubercle, transparent septum. The second complex of structures of the limbic system is the old cortex, which includes the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, and cingulate gyrus. The third complex of the limbic system is the structure of the insular cortex, the parahippocampal gyrus. And subcortical structures: amygdala, nuclei of the transparent septum, anterior thalamic nucleus, mastoid bodies. The hippocampus and other structures of the limbic system are surrounded by the cingulate gyrus. Near it is a vault - a system of fibers running in both directions; it follows the curvature of the cingulate gyrus and connects the hippocampus to the hypothalamus. All the numerous formations of the limbic cortex ring-shaped cover the base of the forebrain and are a kind of border between the new cortex and the brain stem.

3.2 Morphofunctional organization of the system

represents a functional association of brain structures involved in the organization of emotional and motivational behavior, such as food, sexual, defensive instincts. This system is involved in organizing the wake-sleep cycle.

circulating the same excitation in the system and thereby maintaining a single state in it and imposing this state on other brain systems. At present, connections between brain structures are well known, organizing circles that have their own functional specifics. These include the Peipets circle (hippocampus - mastoid bodies - anterior nuclei of the thalamus - cortex of the cingulate gyrus - parahippocampal gyrus - hippocampus). This circle has to do with memory and learning processes.

Another circle (almond-shaped body - mamillary bodies of the hypothalamus - limbic region of the midbrain - amygdala) regulates aggressive-defensive, food and sexual forms of behavior. It is believed that figurative (iconic) memory is formed by the cortico-limbic-thalamo-cortical circle. Circles of different functional purposes connect the limbic system with many structures of the central nervous system, which allows the latter to realize functions, the specificity of which is determined by the included additional structure. For example, the inclusion of the caudate nucleus in one of the circles of the limbic system determines its participation in the organization of the inhibitory processes of higher nervous activity.

A large number of connections in the limbic system, a kind of circular interaction of its structures create favorable conditions for the reverberation of excitation in short and long circles. This, on the one hand, ensures the functional interaction of parts of the limbic system, on the other hand, creates conditions for memorization.

3. 3 Functions of the Limbic System

The abundance of connections of the limbic system with the structures of the central nervous system makes it difficult to identify brain functions in which it would not take part. Thus, the limbic system is related to the regulation of the level of reaction of the autonomous, somatic systems during emotional and motivational activity, the regulation of the level of attention, perception, and reproduction of emotionally significant information. The limbic system determines the choice and implementation of adaptive forms of behavior, dynamics congenital forms behavior, maintenance of homeostasis, generative processes. Finally, it ensures the creation of an emotional background, the formation and implementation of the processes of higher nervous activity. It should be noted that the ancient and old cortex of the limbic system is directly related to the olfactory function. In turn, the olfactory analyzer, as the oldest of the analyzers, is a non-specific activator of all types of activity of the cerebral cortex. Some authors call the limbic system the visceral brain, that is, the structure of the central nervous system involved in the regulation of the activity of internal organs.

This function is carried out mainly through the activity of the hypothalamus, which is the diencephalic link of the limbic system. The close efferent connections of the system with the internal organs are evidenced by various changes in their functions during stimulation of the limbic structures, especially the tonsils. At the same time, the effects have a different sign in the form of activation or inhibition of visceral functions. There is an increase or decrease in heart rate, motility and secretion of the stomach and intestines, secretion of various hormones by the adenohypophysis (adenocorticotropins and gonadotropins).

3.3.2 Formation of emotions

Emotions - these are experiences that reflect the subjective attitude of a person to the objects of the external world and the results of his own activity. In turn, emotions are a subjective component of motivations - states that trigger and implement behavior aimed at satisfying the needs that have arisen. Through the mechanism of emotions, the limbic system improves the body's adaptation to changing environmental conditions. The hypothalamus is a critical area for the emergence of emotions. In the structure of emotions, there are actually emotional experiences and its peripheral (vegetative and somatic) manifestations. These components of emotions can have relative independence. Expressed subjective experiences may be accompanied by small peripheral manifestations and vice versa. The hypothalamus is a structure primarily responsible for the autonomic manifestations of emotions. In addition to the hypothalamus, the structures of the limbic system most closely associated with emotions include the cingulate gyrus and the amygdala.

with the provision of defensive behavior, vegetative, motor, emotional reactions, motivation of conditioned reflex behavior. The tonsils react with many of their nuclei to visual, auditory, interoceptive, olfactory, and skin stimuli, and all these stimuli cause a change in the activity of any of the nuclei of the amygdala, i.e., the nuclei of the amygdala are polysensory. Irritation of the nuclei of the amygdala creates a pronounced parasympathetic effect on the activity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. It leads to a decrease (rarely to an increase) in blood pressure, a slowing of the heart rate, a violation of the conduction of excitation through the conduction system of the heart, the occurrence of arrhythmia and extrasystole. In this case, vascular tone may not change. Irritation of the tonsil nuclei causes respiratory depression, sometimes a cough reaction. Conditions such as autism, depression, post-traumatic shock, and phobias are thought to be associated with abnormal functioning of the amygdala. The cingulate gyrus has numerous connections with the neocortex and stem centers. And plays the role of the main integrator various systems the brain that generates emotions. Its functions are providing attention, feeling pain, stating an error, transmitting signals from the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. The ventral frontal cortex has strong connections with the amygdala. Damage to the cortex causes a sharp disturbance of emotions in a person, characterized by the occurrence of emotional dullness and disinhibition of emotions associated with the satisfaction of biological needs.

3. 3. 3 Formation of memory and implementation of learning

This function is related to the main circle of Peipets. With a single training, the amygdala plays an important role due to its ability to induce strong negative emotions, contributing to the rapid and lasting formation of a temporary connection. Among the structures of the limbic system responsible for memory and learning, the hippocampus and the associated posterior frontal cortex play an important role. Their activity is absolutely necessary for the consolidation of memory - the transition of short-term memory into long-term.

System Features

The endocrine system of the human body combines small in size and different in structure and functions of the endocrine glands that are part of the endocrine system. These are the pituitary gland with its independently functioning anterior and posterior lobes, the sex glands, the thyroid and parathyroid glands, the adrenal cortex and medulla, the pancreatic islet cells, and the secretory cells that line the intestinal tract. Taken together, they weigh no more than 100 grams, and the amount of hormones they produce can be calculated in billionths of a gram. The pituitary gland, which produces more than 9 hormones, regulates the activity of most other endocrine glands and is itself under the control of the hypothalamus. Thyroid regulates the growth, development, intensity of metabolism in the body. Together with the parathyroid gland, it also regulates the level of calcium in the blood. The adrenal glands also influence the intensity of metabolism and help the body resist stress. The pancreas regulates blood sugar levels and at the same time acts as an external secretion gland - secretes digestive enzymes through the ducts into the intestines. The endocrine sex glands - the testes in men and the ovaries in women - combine the production of sex hormones with non-endocrine functions: germ cells also mature in them. The sphere of influence of hormones is exceptionally large. They have a direct impact on the growth and development of the body, on all types of metabolism, on puberty. There are no direct anatomical connections between the endocrine glands, but there is an interdependence of the functions of one gland from others. The endocrine system of a healthy person can be compared to a well-played orchestra, in which each gland confidently and subtly leads its part. And the main supreme endocrine gland, the pituitary gland, acts as a conductor. The anterior pituitary gland secretes six tropic hormones into the blood: somatotropic, adrenocorticotropic, thyrotropic, prolactin, follicle-stimulating and luteinizing - they direct and regulate the activity of other endocrine glands.

Hormones regulate the activity of all body cells. They affect the sharpness of thinking and physical mobility, physique and height, determine hair growth, tone of voice, sex drive and behavior. Thanks to the endocrine system, a person can adapt to strong temperature fluctuations, excess or lack of food, physical and emotional stress. The study of the physiological action of the endocrine glands made it possible to reveal the secrets of sexual function and to study in more detail the mechanism of childbirth, as well as to answer questions
the question is why some people are tall and others short, some are fat, others are thin, some are slow, others are agile, some are strong, others are weak.

In the normal state, there is a harmonious balance between the activity of the endocrine glands, the state of the nervous system and the response of target tissues (tissues that are affected). Any violation in each of these links quickly leads to deviations from the norm. Excessive or insufficient production of hormones causes various diseases, accompanied by profound chemical changes in the body.

Endocrinology studies the role of hormones in the life of the body and the normal and pathological physiology of the endocrine glands.

Relationship between the endocrine and nervous systems

Neuroendocrine regulation is the result of the interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems. It is carried out due to the influence of the higher vegetative center of the brain - the hypothalamus - on the gland located in the brain - the pituitary gland, figuratively referred to as the "conductor of the endocrine orchestra". Neurons of the hypothalamus secrete neurohormones (releasing factors), which, entering the pituitary gland, enhance (liberins) or inhibit (statins) the biosynthesis and release of triple pituitary hormones. The triple hormones of the pituitary gland, in turn, regulate the activity of the peripheral endocrine glands (thyroid, adrenal, genital), which, to the extent of their activity, change the state of the internal environment of the body and influence behavior.

The hypothesis of neuroendocrine regulation of the process of realization of genetic information assumes the existence at the molecular level of common mechanisms that provide both the regulation of the activity of the nervous system and the regulatory effects on the chromosome apparatus. At the same time, one of the essential functions of the nervous system is the regulation of the activity of the genetic apparatus according to the feedback principle in accordance with the current needs of the body, the influence of the environment and individual experience. In other words, the functional activity of the nervous system can play the role of a factor that changes the activity of gene systems.

Tropins formed in the pituitary gland not only regulate the activity of subordinate glands, but also perform independent endocrine functions. For example, prolactin has a lactogenic effect, and also inhibits the processes of cell differentiation, increases the sensitivity of the sex glands to gonadotropins, and stimulates parental instinct. Corticotropin is not only a stimulator of sterdogenesis, but also an activator of lipolysis in adipose tissue, as well as an important participant in the process of converting short-term memory into long-term memory in the brain. Growth hormone can stimulate the activity of the immune system, the metabolism of lipids, sugars, etc. Also, some hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland can be formed not only in these tissues. For example, somatostatin (a hypothalamic hormone that inhibits the formation and secretion of growth hormone) is also found in the pancreas, where it inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Some substances act in both systems; they can be both hormones (i.e. products of the endocrine glands) and mediators (products of certain neurons). This dual role is played by norepinephrine, somatostatin, vasopressin, and oxytocin, as well as transmitters of the diffuse intestinal nervous system, such as cholecystokinin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide.

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Levels of interconnection between the endocrine and nervous systems. The relationship of the nervous and endocrine systems What regulates the nervous and endocrine systems