Political and social structure of the ancient Russian state. Formation of early feudal relations. Political, socio-economic development of Kievan Rus The political system of the ancient Russian state was
In this video lesson, everyone will get acquainted with the topic "Political, socio-economic development of Kievan Rus." Pupils are waiting for a story about the history of the ancient Russian state, the traditions of government, economic, social and political features. In addition, the teacher will touch upon the main problems of Kievan Rus.
Theme: Ancient Russia
Lesson: Socio-economic and political system of the Old Russian state
We will talk in this lesson about the most ancient events and monuments of Ancient Russia. What is "Yaroslav's Truth"? Who are the dead? What was the social status of the rank and file in ancient Russia?
1. The problem of determining the socio-economic formation of Ancient Russia
The main reason for the existence of this problem is the actual absence of reliable written sources. The only reliable source was and remains the oldest legal code of Kievan Rus - "Russkaya Pravda", consisting of three components: "The Truth of Yaroslav the Wise" (1016/1035), "The Truth of Yaroslavichi" (1070/1072) and the "Charter Vladimir Monomakh" (1113).
In Russian historical science, the problem of determining the socio-economic formation of Ancient Russia was not given much importance. The only exception was the book by N. Pavlov-Silvansky "Feudalism in Russia", published in 1908. In Soviet historical science, on the contrary, this problem was given priority, since its methodological basis was Marxism. In 1939, during a rather heated discussion, the thesis about the slave-owning nature of Kievan Rus was rejected and B. Grekov's concept of Ancient Rus as an early feudal state triumphed. Then, in 1980-2000, a number of authors (I. Froyanov, A. Dvornichenko, P. Pyankov) sharply criticized the concept of B. Grekov, but it still remains dominant in Russian historiography. Most modern authors recognize the presence in Kievan Rus (starting from the 11th century) of three main features of feudalism:
1) the hierarchy of land ownership;
2) the institution of feudal vassalage;
3) senior regime.
2. The political system of the Old Russian state
The head of the Old Russian state was the great prince of Kyiv, who at the same time was the head of the feudal hierarchy, legislator, military leader, tribute recipient and supreme judge. Such a wide range of his powers gave grounds to a number of authors (N. Karamzin) to assert that he was an autocratic monarch. However, most historians (N. Kostomarov, V. Klyuchevsky, M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin) believe that the power of the Grand Prince of Kyiv was significantly limited: first by the council of the tribal nobility and the people's veche, and later by the senior princely retinue and the Boyar Duma. At the same time, a number of modern authors (I. Froyanov, A. Dvornichenko) generally deny the monarchical nature of the Old Russian state and argue that the main political role in pre-Mongol Rus belonged to the people's council.
The power of the Grand Prince of Kyiv was hereditary and passed on ladder principle, i.e., the next in seniority to the specific prince (younger brother or older nephew). However, it must be said that this principle was often violated, and the struggle for the grand prince's throne between the specific princes of the "Rurik House" was a characteristic feature of the political system. Ancient Russia.
Rice. 3. Yaroslav's family. Part of the fresco of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv ()
The mainstay of princely power in ancient Russia was princely retinue. The question of its origin and functions still causes the most heated debate. But traditionally, this term itself served to designate a small but very influential social group in ancient Russian society. In the early stages of its existence, the princely retinue lived mainly on military campaigns, foreign trade and tribute collected from the subject population (polyudye), and then (from the middle of the 11th century) took an active part in the process of folding feudal land ownership.
The princely squad itself was divided into two parts: the older and the younger. The senior squad (gridi, ognischans, tiuns and boyars) not only participated in all military campaigns and diplomatic relations with foreign powers, but also took an active part in the management of the princely domain economy (tiuns, ognischans) and the state as princely posadniks and volostels. The younger squad (children, youths) was the prince's personal guard, which also participated in all military campaigns and carried out separate orders from the prince to manage his domain economy and state as guardians of public order, swordsmen (bailiffs), virniki (fine collectors) and etc.
According to most historians (B. Grekov, B. Rybakov, L. Cherepnin, A. Kuzmin), from the middle of the 11th century. the process of decomposition of the princely squad as a purely military organization begins and the formation of the boyar patrimonial land ownership takes place, which was formed:
1) through the grant of state land to a private inalienable possession (allod or estate);
2) either through the grant of land from the princely domain to a private, but alienable possession (flax or feud).
3. Dependent population of Ancient Russia
We can judge about the various categories of the dependent population of Ancient Rus from the same Russkaya Pravda, but since this source is clearly not enough, disputes in the assessment of the social status of various categories of the dependent population of Kievan Rus still do not stop in historical science.
a) Smerdy. B. Grekov divided all smerds into two main groups: communal smerds, independent of private owners and paying tribute only to the state, and suffering smerds, who were land dependent on feudal lords and carried feudal duties in his favor - corvée and dues. I. Froyanov argued that the smerds were divided into “internal”, that is, prisoners planted on the land of the feudal lord, and “external”, that is, conquered tribes who paid tribute (military indemnity) to the Grand Duke. V. Klyuchevsky, L. Cherepnin, B. Rybakov considered smerds to be state (princely) peasants who were in feudal dependence on the state and carried duties in the form of tribute in its favor. S. Yushkov believed that the status of a smerd was akin to the legal status of a serf in the 16th-17th centuries.
Rice. 4. The uprising of smerds in 1071 ()
b) servants (serfs). B. Grekov divided all the serfs into "whitewashed", that is, complete, who did not conduct an independent household and were the personal servants of the feudal lord, and "hiremen" - former free community members who fell into the category of slaves for debts. A. Zimin believed that the term "servants" denoted the entire dependent population of Ancient Russia, and the term "serf" - only slaves. I. Froyanov argued that the servants were captive slaves, and the serfs were slaves of local origin, etc.
Closely related to this dispute is the problem of the place of slavery in ancient Russian society. According to most historians (B. Grekov, M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin), slavery in Russia existed only in the form of domestic slavery and did not play a significant role in the social division of labor. According to their opponents (I. Froyanov, P. Pyankov), slavery played a key role in Ancient Russia.
in) Ryadovichi. According to most historians (B. Grekov, M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin), the dependence of the Ryadovich on the feudal lord was purely feudal in nature, since through the signing of a special agreement (series) he entered into a dependent position from the landowner and carried feudal duties in his favor.
G) Purchases. B. Grekov considered purchases of former free smerds, who, through obtaining a cash loan (kupa), fell into a dependent position from the feudal lord. A. Zimin, I. Froyanov, V. Kobrin argued that purchases were "non-whitewashed" serfs who either worked on the lord's plow or were the feudal gentry. The main difference between purchases and obelnye serfs was that they ran a personal household and could eventually, having repaid a debt, regain their freedom.
e) Outcasts. Most Soviet historians shared the point of view of B. Grekov, who considered outcasts to be former serfs planted on the land of a feudal lord, that is, serfs.
1. Gorsky A. A. Russia from the Slavic settlement to the Moscow kingdom. M., 2004
2. Grekov B. D. Kievan Rus. M., 2004
3. Danilevsky I. N. Ancient Russia through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants. M., 2001
4. Zimin A. A. Slaves in Russia from ancient times to the end of the 15th century. M., 1973
5. Kuzmin A. G. History of Russia from ancient times to 1618. M., 2003
6. Tikhomirov M. N. Ancient Russia. M., 1975
7. Sverdlov M. B. Pre-Mongol Rus. SPb., 2003
8. Stefanovich P.S. Boyars, youths, squads. The military-political elite of Russia in the X-XI centuries. M., 2012
9. Froyanov I. Ya. Beginnings of Russian history. SPb., 2005
10. Yushkov S. V. Russian Truth. Origin, sources, its significance. M., 2002
4. Dependent population of Ancient Russia ().
It is worth noting that the social system of the ancient Russian state can be called quite complex, but already here the features of feudal relations were visible. At this time, feudal ownership of land began to form, which led to the division of society into classes - the feudal lords and, accordingly, the peasants who were always dependent on them.
Features of the social system
The princes were considered the largest feudal lords. There were even entire princely villages where peasants dependent on the upper strata of the population lived. Boyars can also be attributed to large feudal lords. We are talking about the feudal aristocracy, which grew rich due to predatory wars and the exploitation of the labor of the peasants.
When Christianity was introduced, monasteries and churches could be considered collective feudal lords. The church gradually grew rich in land, and she was also given a tenth of the income of the population.
As for the lower stratum of the feudal lords, this included servants and warriors, who were formed from both free people and serfs. Sometimes such people could become exploiters, having received from the owner land with peasants as a reward for long service. Such a historical source as Russkaya Pravda talks about equating combatants with boyars, contrasting them with smerds.
The main privilege of the feudal lord is the right to land, as well as exploitation. It is interesting that the life of the feudal lord was also quite well defended: if there was an encroachment on them, then the highest punishment could be established by law.
Smerds made up the main mass of the population, which constantly worked. If we talk about the conditions of their life, then they lived in rope-communities. The rope was bound by mutual responsibility, as well as a system of some kind of mutual assistance.
In addition, in the state of Ancient Russia there was a figure of purchase - a feudally dependent peasant. Such a person had his own household, but the difficult life situation forced him to go to the master in the so-called bondage. Such a peasant received money from the owner in exchange for physical work. But the purchase worked for the owner only for the interest that he owed, so he could not pay him for life. The purchase was also responsible for the damage that could be caused to the master through negligence. If the purchase ran away, he could turn into a serf.
In addition, the social system of the ancient Russian state also distinguishes the servants, which include unfree women and men. This segment of the population was almost completely powerless. The servants resemble slaves, although there was no enslavement in the Old Russian state.
Merchants and artisans were singled out among the population of cities. It is worth noting that cities were considered real centers of culture. But the village was considered illiterate for a long time.
What was the political system of the ancient Russian state 
Estates took place in the Old Russian state. We are talking about a large group of people who are united by unity. legal status. More specifically, this state was multi-ethnic. The state of ancient Russia was a monarchy headed by a prince. It was to this prince that the supreme legislative power belonged in the state. The princes passed important laws like the Truth of Yaroslav, the Charter of Vladimir. The princes were heads of administrations, concentrating executive power in their hands.
If we talk about external functions, they were carried out both diplomatically and with the help of weapons. At that time, various treaties were signed with other peoples. The prince was guided by the opinions of others, which led to the emergence of councils. At that time, there were also popular assemblies called Veche. Initially, there was a decimal, numerical control system that grew out of a military organization. Such a system could separate local government from central government.
The church became an important element of the political system of the state. The Metropolitan was the head of the church. This is exactly what the political system of ancient Russia was like.
Video: Old Russian statehood
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As for self-government in the Old Russian state, there is still no consensus in science about the time of its origin. A number of authors attribute the origin of communal self-government in Russia to the time of the formation and development of the communal system among the Slavs, the unification of industrial communities into unions of communities and urban settlements, and the division of power into central and local.
Other authors trace Russian city self-government from the tradition, widespread in early pre-Mongolian Russia (X-XI centuries), to decide at the veche (from the Old Slavonic “vet” - council) the most important issues of public life, up to the invitation or expulsion of the prince. The idea of veche rule was most fully implemented in two Russian feudal republics - Novgorod and Pskov, which were liquidated already in the time of Ivan the Terrible, where the veche was considered an organ of people's power. From Novgorod or Novgorod possessions come the first ideas about social independence.
The third group of authors connects the initial stage of the emergence of Russian self-government with the first zemstvo reform of Tsar Ivan IV in the middle of the 16th century. Since that time, the development of individual elements of local self-government in Russia began.
Formation of the Old Russian state .
In the ninth century the Eastern Slavs already had internal prerequisites for the creation of statehood. The tribal system was at the stage of decomposition. The supreme body of the tribe was still the veche - a meeting of all its free members. But already there was a tribal nobility in the person of several privileged clans that differed from the mass of community members in social and property terms. From among them, the veche elected leaders (princes) and elders. By the time the state was formed, separate tribal principalities already existed. The power of the tribal princes was based on a system of strengthening urban settlements, some of which later turned into real feudal cities. Tribal principalities were still pre-state formations, and tribal leaders were not yet princes in the true sense of the word.
There were also external prerequisites that contributed to the creation of the state among the Eastern Slavs. The boundless steppes that stretched between the Black Sea and the forest belt of the Russian Plain have long been a tortuous road to Europe for warlike nomads, whose hordes were uprooted by Asia once every one and a half or two centuries. Many nomadic tribes tried to gain a foothold on these lands, but the settled Slavic farmers were ready to stubbornly defend the fertile arable land, which gave huge harvests.
The constant struggle with the nomads contributed to the unification of the East Slavic tribes into the Old Russian people. In fact, the Kyiv state was formed in the fight against external enemies and later became a truly "form of survival" in the constant struggle with the Steppe.
In 882, according to the chronicle, Prince Oleg of Novgorod, having previously occupied Smolensk and Lyubech, captured Kyiv and proclaimed it the capital of his state. “Behold the mother of a Russian city,” the chronicler put the words into Oleg's mouth. Oleg himself began to be titled the Grand Duke. Thus, 882, when Northern Russia (Novgorod) and Southern Russia (Kyiv) united under the rule of one prince, became a turning point in the fate of the Eastern Slavs. The unification of the two most important centers along the great waterway "from the Varangians to the Greeks" gave Oleg the opportunity to begin subjugating other East Slavic lands to his power. Thus began a long process of consolidation of individual tribal principalities of the Eastern Slavs into a single state.
The supreme political power in Kievan Rus was represented by the Grand Duke. He acted as legislator, military leader, supreme administrator and supreme judge. From the time of the first Russian princes, known from the chronicles, Rurik and Oleg, princely power became individually hereditary, and this gave it legitimacy in the eyes of contemporaries. The idea of the chosenness of people who belonged to the princely family was affirmed. Gradually, the power of the prince began to be perceived as state power. By the end of the 10th century, the Kievan state was acquiring the features of an early feudal monarchy. The adoption of Christianity by Russia was of great importance. The church strengthened the authority of the prince, considering his power as God-given. In 996, the council of Russian bishops solemnly declared to Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich: “You have been appointed by God to be executed by the evil, and good to pardon.”
The state system of Kievan Rus became the subject of scientific research as early as the 18th century. In pre-revolutionary historiography, Kievan Rus was mainly seen as an original society and state, developing in a different way than Europe or Asia. N. P. Pavlov-Silvansky was the first Russian historian to attempt to prove the presence in Russian history of a feudal period similar to Western European feudalism. From the 30s. 20th century in Soviet historiography, the idea of the Old Russian state as an early feudal monarchy is affirmed. Despite the critical attitude to this concept of a number of scientists of the Soviet and post-Soviet period (S.V. Bakhrushin, S.V. Yushkov, I.Ya. Froyanov), it still dominates in historical works.
The early feudal monarchy grows out of tribal relations and is characterized by the weakness of the central government, the fragmentation of the territory and the preservation of significant remnants of tribal self-government. This form of government existed in some European countries - in the Frankish state, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom, the German Empire. In the political system of Kievan Rus, one can also find signs characteristic of this type of statehood.
The head of the Old Russian state was the Grand Duke of Kyiv, who owned the highest economic, administrative, judicial and military power. He, however, was not the sole ruler of the state, and his power had not yet acquired a distinctly hereditary character. There were various ways to replace the Grand Duke's throne: inheritance, forcible seizure, and finally, election by a veche. The latter method, however, had an auxiliary character: the election of a prince by a veche usually only reinforced the inheritance or usurpation of power by him.
The prince ruled with the help of a squad, divided into an older one (“boyars”, “husbands”) and a younger one (“gridi”, “lads”, “children”). The senior squad was actually the princely council. Together with her, the prince made decisions about campaigns, collecting tribute, building fortresses, etc.
The Boyar Duma subsequently grew out of it. The squad was maintained by the prince at his expense: at the expense of booty from aggressive campaigns, deductions from tribute and court fees. Princely feasts were a means of rallying the combatants and maintaining the authority of the prince among them. State affairs were discussed at them, disputes and conflicts between combatants were resolved, positions were distributed. In the depths of the squad organization, even before the formation of the Old Russian state, the so-called decimal or numerical control system developed, which subsequently spread to cities and communities: the population was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands, headed, respectively, by tenth, hundredth, thousandth.
The closest relatives of the prince - brothers, sons, nephews - formed a special aristocratic stratum that stood above other combatants. Some of them had their own squads. Occupying the Kievan table, the new prince usually united his own squad with the squad of his predecessor.
To collect tribute from the subject population, the Kyiv princes undertook special campaigns - polyudye. Initially, tribute was collected with furs, from the 11th century. monetary tribute prevailed. For a long time, tribute was irregular, and its size was determined either by the appetite of the prince and his warriors, or by the possibility of using tribute as a means of pressure on recalcitrant subjects. The establishment of tributary relations meant the entry of one or another territory into the composition of the Old Russian state, and polyudye itself was a way of governing the country in the absence of a developed state apparatus, since the princes settled conflicts on the spot, held court, resolved border disputes, etc.
Gradually, out of combatants and people personally dependent on the prince, a princely administration was formed, the most important role in which belonged to the representatives of the prince in the field: posadniks (governors) - in cities and volosts - in rural areas. They did not receive a salary for their service and were supported by fees from the population - the so-called feed. Such a system was called feeding, and officials were called feeders.
The princely economy was managed by a nobleman. He was assisted by tiuns appointed from the prince's household servants. They were also present at the court of the prince or posadnik, and even often replaced them in court. Accounting for the tribute collected was carried out by tributaries, the trade duty - "wash" - was collected by the collectors, the fine for the murder - "viru" - virniki, the duty for the sale of horses - "spot" - spotters.
Despite some growth in the princely administration, the state apparatus of the Old Russian state remained primitive. State and palace functions have not yet separated from each other and were carried out by the same persons.
The development of feudal relations contributed to the strengthening of the position of local feudal lords - princes and boyars. In their status - large estate owners - the right to land and the right to power were combined. Being vassals of the Grand Duke, they were obliged to serve him. At the same time, they were full masters in their estates, had the right of immunity, that is, they carried out certain state functions in their possessions, they could have their own vassals.
Thus, the so-called palace-patrimony management system is finally taking shape, in which two control centers are distinguished - the prince's palace and the boyar estate, power is divided between large landowners - the prince and the boyars, and the implementation of the most important state functions is entrusted to their representatives, who were also officials persons and managers of the patrimonial economy. The state apparatus actually coincided with the administration apparatus of the princely and boyar estates.
There were no judicial bodies as special institutions in the Old Russian state. Justice was carried out by the prince or his representatives on the basis of customary law and the norms of Russian Truth. As the formation of patrimonial land ownership and the registration of boyar immunity, the importance of the boyar court over dependent peasants grew. The transformation of Christianity into the state religion led to the emergence of ecclesiastical jurisdiction that extended to the clergy.
The formation of the Old Russian state did not entail the immediate elimination of tribal principalities. Local princes were in vassal dependence on the Grand Duke, which was reduced to the payment of tribute and participation in the military enterprises of Kyiv.
In fact, the Old Russian state was a federation of lands under the suzerainty of the Kyiv prince. As the grand-ducal family grew, the princes of Kyiv practiced the allocation of separate lands - appanages - to reign for their sons. They gradually replaced princes from local dynasties. For some time, this strengthened the grand ducal power.
Veche continued to play an important role in the Old Russian state. From a tribal gathering of the ancient Slavs, it turned into a meeting of townspeople. The decisive word at veche meetings belonged to the city nobility. The most important issues of the life of the city community were brought up at the veche. The role of the veche in organizing the defense of the city was especially significant: it formed the people's militia and chose its leaders - the thousand, sot, ten. Sometimes the veche elected princes, concluded an agreement with them (row). Of the 50 princes who occupied the Kyiv table in the 10th - early 13th centuries, 14 were invited by the veche. The veche's attributes were a veche bell and a special tribune that towered over the square - a degree. There was a certain order of conduct of the veche, and, perhaps, recording of speeches was sometimes practiced. Decisions at the meeting were made by majority vote. There could be several veche meetings in a big city. The first mention in the annals of the city council is dated 997 (Belgorod near Kyiv).
Many historians considered the veche as an organ of democracy. At the same time, they differently assessed the place of the veche in the system of governance of the Old Russian state. AND I. Froyanov believed that the veche was the supreme institution in the city-states of Ancient Russia; M.B. Sverdlov, on the contrary, argued that the convocation of a veche was episodic, as a rule, in emergency circumstances of a war or uprising, and mainly in the cities of North-Western Russia. According to Academician V.L. Yanin, veche allotment, household land, livestock, and household equipment were the personal property of each family. Arable land, meadows, forests, reservoirs, etc. were in common use. Arable land and mowing were subject to division between the community members, which was carried out every few years. The community was engaged in the redistribution of land allotments, laid out taxes between households, resolved disputes between members of the community, searched for criminals. The institution of mutual responsibility operated within the community. Community self-government was headed by an elected headman. The state was interested in preserving the communal order, since with their help it was easier to collect taxes and ensure the loyalty of the population to the princely power.
The development of feudal relations and the growth of large-scale landownership resulted in the gradual subordination of communities to the state or to individual feudal estates. Along with the elected elders, clerks and other officials appointed by the princes and boyars appear. Over time, the elders also began to be appointed by the feudal lords.
Legislative system. "Russian Truth"
The formation of statehood in Kievan Rus was accompanied by the formation and development of the legislative system. Its initial source was the customs, traditions, opinions that came from the primitive communal system.
Among the earliest known monuments of Russian law - Russian law(apparently, a set of oral norms of customary law), treaties between Russia and Byzantium 911, 944, 971, relating to international, commercial, procedural and criminal law, mainly in the militant-merchant environment; church statutes X-XI centuries, containing the norms of marriage and family relations, crimes against morality and the church, etc.
The largest monument, a genuine code of Old Russian law, which broadly reflected the features of the political and socio-economic system of the Old Russian state, is Russian Truth. Striking with a high level of lawmaking, developed for its time by the legal culture, this document was valid until the 15th century. and consisted of: Separate norms Russian law; Ancient Truth or Truth of Yaroslav; Additions to the Truth of Yaroslav (regulations on collectors of court fines), etc.; Pravda Yaroslavichi (Truth of the Russian, 3 land, approved by the sons of Yaroslav the Wise); the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh, which included the Charter on cuts (percentage), the Charter on purchases, etc.; Long Russian Truth.
The original text of Russkaya Pravda has not been preserved, and more than a hundred lists of this document have come down to us, including three main editions: Short, Long and Abbreviated.
Brief edition (Brief Truth), prepared no later than 1054, is the oldest edition and consists of the Truth of Yaroslav, the Truth of the Yaroslavichs, Pokon Virnoy, Lesson of bridgemen.
Associated with the name of Vladimir Monomakh extended edition, which arose no earlier than 1113 and included the Court of Yaroslav and the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh.
Reworked Extended Truth in the middle of the 15th century. received the name Abridged edition.
The evolution of Russian Pravda was based on the gradual expansion of legal norms from the princely (dominal) law among the squad, the definition of fines for various crimes against the person. The law provided for the inequality of people belonging to different social groups (combatants, feudal lords, rural community members, servants).
Certain legal privileges were also provided for such groups of the population as princes, boyars, princely husbands, princely tiuns, firemen (managers of the estate), etc. For the murder of a representative of a privileged stratum, a higher criminal liability and a special procedure for the inheritance of real estate (land) were established.
Legally and economically independent categories included townspeople and community smerds, who paid taxes and carried certain duties in favor of the state. So, a free smerd community member had the right to bequeath property to his children, but land - only to his sons. In the absence of heirs, the property came into communal ownership. Smerd also had the legal right to protect his person and property and was responsible for the crimes or misdemeanors committed.
Along with free smerds, Russkaya Pravda mentions dependent people - purchasers, ryadoviches, and others who had their own household, but for one reason or another fell into partial dependence on the feudal lord and worked out a significant part of the time on patrimonial lands. Thus, the Long Truth contains the Procurement Charter. Purchase- a person who has taken from the feudal lord some valuable "kupa" (loan) in the form of land or money, grain or. At the same time, the amount of debt mining was determined by the creditor himself. Often, the purchase worked for the feudal lord only for interest, and the “kupa” taken at one time should have been returned in full. A certain limit of this bondage was set by Vladimir Monomakh
After the uprising of purchases in 1113, limits were set for the allowable interest on the "kupa". This law protected the person and property of the purchaser. However, for a crime, the purchase could be turned into a serf (slave). A similar fate awaited him in the event of non-payment of debt or escape. Thus, the page of enslavement, the gradual enslavement of former free community members, was opened.
A complete serf or "slave servant" did not possess any property, everything that he used belonged to the master. Meanwhile, the life of serfs, who constituted the special attendants of the princely or boyar court (servants, educators of children, artisans, etc.), were protected by higher punishments. Russkaya Pravda introduced a certain regulation into the sources of servility. Among them - self-sale into slavery of one person or the whole family, marriage to a slave or birth from a slave, loss of the status of a free person when entering the service without a special clause, committing a serious crime, fleeing a purchase from a master, etc. Captivity, however, as a source of slavery I did not find any reflection in Russian Pravda. And yet, for the Old Russian state, the enslavement of the peasants, their attachment to the land and the personality of the feudal lord was not yet typical.
The vira (fine) for murder or mutilation was highly differentiated. Its size depended on the category of the victim. 80 hryvnia (hryvnia - a unit of money account, corresponding to 50 g of silver) for " the best people", 40 - for a simple free person, 20 - for causing grievous injuries, etc. At the same time, vira went to the treasury, and the victim received a monetary reward. The life of dependent people was valued low: 12 or even 5 hryvnia, which was not considered vira .
Yaroslav the Wise dealt with legislation a lot; he went further than his father (Vladimir Krasnoe Solnyshko) in realizing his role as a sovereign-ruler, made important innovations in financial, family and criminal law. His "Church Charter" introduced a legislative act that regulated the relationship between princely power and the church, as well as rights in the field of court, tribute collection, etc. At the beginning of the 11th century. he approves Russian Truth, which was apparently compiled during his reign in Novgorod and made an attempt to regulate relations between the Novgorodians and the Varangians, who were part of the prince's squad. The prince himself was called, like the Byzantine rulers, the king, as evidenced by the inscription of the XI century. on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. The legend tells that Metropolitan Neophyte, presenting the Greek gifts: the cross of the life-giving tree, the cornelian cup of Augustus Caesar, the crown, the golden chain and barmas of Konstantin Monomakh, the grandfather of the Grand Duke, crowned Yaroslav the Wise in the Kiev Cathedral Church with an imperial crown and proclaimed him the Russian Tsar.
Sons of Yaroslav the Wise in the 11th century. significantly supplemented and changed the text of the Russian Pravda, creating the so-called Pravda of the Yaroslavichs.
In 1097, on the initiative of Vladimir Monomakh, the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, a congress of princes was held in Lyubech , the purpose of which was to eliminate strife and take measures to protect the Russian land from the Polovtsians. New rules for the organization of power in Russia were introduced. Each prince "kept his fatherland." However, this principle did not become an immutable law, strife resumed. Vladimir Monomakh, standing out for his statesmanship of mind, willpower and energetic activity, carried out a major revision of Russian Pravda. Additions and changes were made, in particular, limiting the arbitrariness of usurers, three cases of a poor man turning into a serf were identified, and measures were introduced to protect the property rights of the merchants. It was noted above that he introduced the Charter on Purchases, which regulated bonded-debt and loan relations, partly protected the personal and property interests of purchases, somewhat reduced the interest charged by usurers from poor townspeople, etc.
Vladimir Monomakh stayed in historical memory as a talented ruler of the state, who put all his strength into strengthening the unified power, preserving the unity of the country and transforming it. "Monomakh's teaching to children"- a genuine wish to his descendants: respect for elders, observance of laws, so that there are no lawsuits and quarrels in Russia over land and civil strife, so that the country remains strong, united, well-governed.
Mstislav, son of Vladimir Monomakh(1076-1132), was the last prince of united Russia, with his death the Russian land finally disintegrated, began a long period feudal fragmentation.
Power is one of the fundamental principles of society and politics. It serves as the basis of policy and is capable of exerting, albeit indirectly, but tangible impact on various spheres of society.
Power appeared with the emergence of human society and accompanied its development, which was reflected in various doctrines of power.
According to the form of government, the Old Russian state was a typical early feudal monarchy. The Grand Duke was the eldest (suzerain) in relation to the local princes. He owned the largest and most powerful principality. Relations with other princes were built on the basis of agreements - letters of the cross, which determined the rights and obligations of the Grand Duke (to protect vassals, provide assistance to them and receive, in turn, assistance from vassals), as well as the rights and obligations of vassal princes.
The system of governing bodies in the future in the Old Russian state was determined by the nature of political power under early feudalism, which was, as it were, an attribute of landed property.
Local government in Russia and its legal basis were formed under the influence of a combination of certain objective and subjective factors. Such factors operate in all countries, but have different consequences. Well-known statesman I.A. Ilyin emphasized for Russia the importance of such factors as the size of the territory, population density and the degree of grandiosity of the tasks solved by the people. With regard to national, social and religious factors, he was convinced that the more homogeneous a society is in terms of these characteristics, the easier it is to govern the state. The less developed the people's way of life, its culture is individualized, the more it needs state guardianship, including over the institutions of local self-government.
The development of local self-government in Russia, in which the state traditionally occupied a leading place and position, was possible only under the tutelage of the state. State guardianship of social institutions (policeism), including local self-government, led to the dominance both in municipal theory and in practice of a powerful system of state power.
A kind of "fatherly" help from the state is a necessity at the present time.
For the development of local self-government, it is also necessary to form a managerial culture. Many problems at the municipal level are often aggravated by a subjective factor - the inability and unwillingness of officials to carry out concerted actions in the interests of the population.
1. Gomola A. I. History of the state and law of Russia: Proc. allowance. / A. I. Gomola, S. G. Pantsernaya. - 2nd ed., corrected. and additional - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2005.
2. History of public administration in Russia. Textbook. / Rev. ed. V.G. Ignatov. - Rostov-n / D .: Phoenix, 2003.
3. History of public administration in Russia (X-XXI centuries): Reader / ed. R.G.Pikhoi. M., 2003.
4. History of public administration in Russia: textbook / N.Yu. Bolotin [and others]; Ed. R.G. Pihoi. M., 2006.
5. Kulikov V.I. History of public administration in Russia: textbook. allowance for universities. M., 2003.
6. Linets S.I. History of the Russian state and its governing bodies. - Pyatigorsk, 1998.
7. Guard, N.V. Local self-government: history, theory, practice, M. Reklam.-ed. Center "Fedorov" 1995.
8. History of Russia. http://rushistory.stsland.ru/index.html
Pikhoy R.G. History of public administration in Russia. - M., RAGS, 2001.
Ignatov V.G. History of public administration in Russia. - Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix, 1999.
Markova A.N. History of public administration in Russia - M .., Law and Law, 1997.
It should be noted that the social structure of the Old Russian state was complex, but the main features of feudal relations were already quite clearly visible. Formed feudal ownership of land - the economic basis of feudalism. Accordingly, the main classes of feudal society were formed - the feudal lords and the feudal-dependent population.
The most important feudal lords were princes. Sources point to the presence of princely villages where dependent peasants lived, working for the feudal lord under the supervision of his clerks, elders, including those who specially observed field work. The boyars were also big feudal lords - the feudal aristocracy, which grew rich due to the exploitation of the peasants and predatory wars.
With the introduction of Christianity, the church and monasteries became collective feudal lords. Not immediately, but gradually, the church acquires land, the princes grant it a "tithe" - a tenth of the income from the population.
The lowest stratum of the class of feudal lords consisted of combatants and servants, princely and boyar. They were formed from free people, but sometimes even from serfs. Cursing before the master, such servants sometimes received land with the peasants and became exploiters themselves. Article 91 of Russkaya Pravda equates the warriors in order of succession with the boyars and contrasts both with the smerds.
The main right and privilege of the feudal lords was the right to land and exploit the peasants. The state also protected other property of the exploiters. The life and health of the feudal lord were subject to enhanced protection. For an encroachment on them, a high measure of punishment was established, differentiated depending on the position of the victim. The honor of the feudal lord was also highly guarded: insult by action, and in some cases by word, also entailed serious punishments.
The bulk of the feudal-dependent population were peasants - dependent and free.
The most significant group of the peasant population was occupied by smerds. Smerds lived in communities - ropes that grew out of the tribal system, but in the Old Russian state they no longer had a consanguineous, but a territorial, neighborly character. The rope was bound by mutual responsibility, a system of mutual assistance.
This category included both free and dependent peasants, all smerds paid tribute. During the period of development of feudal relations in Russia, there was a process of transition of smerds into a dependent state. Russkaya Pravda points to the existence of two categories of smerds: free and dependent. The free smerd himself is responsible for his crimes: “Then I’ll sell the smerd to pay kiyazh for sale” (Article 45 of the “Large Truth”). However most the peasants were dependent smerds, who, despite their disenfranchised status, were close to serfs: “And for the murder of a smerd or a serf, pay 5 hryvnias”; “If a smerd dies, then his inheritance goes to the prince, if he has daughters in his house ...” (v. 90).
In the Old Russian state, the figure of a typical feudal-dependent peasant appears - the purchase. Zakup has his own household, but need makes him go into bondage to the master. He takes a kupa from the feudal lord - a sum of money or assistance in kind and, because of this, is obliged to work for the owner. The labor of purchase does not go towards the payment of the debt, it acts, as it were, only as the payment of interest on the debt. Therefore, he cannot work out the kupa and practically remains with the master for life. In addition, the purchaser is responsible for damage caused to the master through negligence. In the event of an escape from the master, the purchase automatically turns into a serf. The theft committed by purchase also leads to servility. The master has the right of patrimonial justice in relation to the purchase. For example, the feudal lord has the right to beat a negligent purchase. At the same time, the purchase, unlike the serf, has some rights. He cannot be beaten “not for the cause”, he can complain about the master to the judges, he cannot be sold into slaves (if this happened, he was automatically released from his obligations towards the master), his property cannot be taken away with impunity.
Articles 56–62, 64 of the “Large Truth” contain the so-called “Purchasing Charter”. Fixing the purchase for the master is determined by Art. 56 of Russkaya Pravda, which indicates that the purchase is "strong to its master." In Art. 62 of the “Large Truth” says: “Even the master beats the purchase about the case, then there is no fault,” that is, the decision on the guilt of the purchase is left to the master himself. At the same time, unlike the serf, the purchase was recognized as the subject of rights and obligations, and according to Art. 57, 58 he was responsible for the master's inventory, if he lost it in the field, for the cattle, if he did not drive it into the yard or stable. The purchase had its own property (Article 59), it could not be given to another owner for work (Article 60), sold as a serf (Article 61). In the latter case, the purchase received freedom, and the gentleman who sold it paid the sale of 12 hryvnias. In a small lawsuit, the purchase was allowed by rumor (witness).
From among the dependent population "Brief Truth" in Art. 11 and 16 mentions "servant". There are several opinions about the legal status of this category of people. The closest to the truth is the explanation of the concept of "chelyadin", given by V.D. Grekov. Comparing the content of Art. 13 and 16 of the Brief Truth and Art. 27 and 28 of the “Metropolitan Justice”, he convincingly proved that the word “chelyadin” is a general designation of two varieties of dependent people: “Both monuments speak of a slave and a purchase, and in the Metropolitan Justice, slaves and purchases are considered varieties of one generic concept - servants". Thus, Russkaya Pravda calls an unfree man a serf or a servant, and an unfree woman a slave, uniting both general concept"servants".
The servants were almost completely disenfranchised. Russkaya Pravda equates her to cattle: “From the servants, the fruit is like from cattle,” says one of its articles. In this regard, the servants of the Old Russian state resembled the ancient slaves, who in Rome were called "talking tools."
The most correct explanation of V.D. Grekov also gives another concept - "ryadovich", which causes controversy among historians. Ryadovich became a person who concluded a "row" with the master in the cases provided for by Art. 110 of Russkaya Pravda.
The most disenfranchised group of the feudally dependent population were serfs. The legal status of serfs is devoted to a whole section of the "Various Truth" (Art. 110-121). All articles about serfs testify to their disenfranchised position. The serf was not a subject of law, he is a thing that can be sold, bought, beaten, and even the murder of a serf (Article 89) was not a crime: the perpetrator of the murder only reimbursed the cost of the serf - 5 hryvnia (for a slave - 6 hryvnia). The serf could not have been an obedience either. (Art. 66).
However, in Russia, serfs did not form the basis of production, slavery was predominantly patriarchal, domestic. It is no coincidence that Russkaya Pravda singles out the categories of serfs whose life was protected by a higher punishment. These are all kinds of service personnel of the princely and boyar courts - servants, educators of children, artisans, etc.
Over time, the process of turning serfs into feudally dependent peasants develops. They became the first serfs. Note that in Russia at that time there was no enslavement of peasants.
Along with serfs, purchases, smerds, hirelings are mentioned in the documents. The term "employee" was applied in Ancient Russia to different categories of people and was used in three meanings: 1) A person who undertook to perform a certain job for remuneration; 2) Tenant; 3) Mortgage person (hiring - purchase). In all cases, employment is understood as a contract between a person who undertakes to work and a person who will use the results of labor.
Large numerous cities existed in the Old Russian state. Already in the IX-X centuries. there were at least 25 of them. In the next century, more than 60 cities were added, and by the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion in Russia there were about 300 of them. Merchants, who were a privileged category of people, stood out among the urban population. Skillful artisans also lived in Kyiv, Novgorod and other cities, building magnificent temples and palaces for the nobility, making weapons, jewelry, etc.
Cities were centers of culture. If the ancient Russian village was illiterate for a long time, then in the cities literacy was widespread, not only among merchants, but also among artisans. This is evidenced by both numerous birch bark letters and author's inscriptions on household items.
As you can see, estates are already taking shape in the Old Russian state, i.e. large groups of people united by the unity of legal status.
Considering the political system of the Old Russian state, it is necessary, first of all, to dwell on the organization of its state unity. This problem has caused great controversy, both in pre-revolutionary and modern literature. Some authors even claim that in the ninth century. there was no single Old Russian state at all, but only a union of tribal unions. More cautious researchers believe that from the 9th to the middle of the 10th century. we can talk about the union of local principalities, i.e. states. Some believe that there was a federation, although this institution is not characteristic of the feudal state, but arises only in a bourgeois and socialist society. At the same time, there are assertions that the federation existed not only at the initial stage of the development of the Old Russian state, but throughout its history.
It seems that the point of view, according to which it is believed that the ancient Russian state is characterized by a system of relations of suzerainty-vassalage, typical of early feudalism, is more convincing, suggesting that the entire structure of the state rests on the ladder of the feudal hierarchy. A vassal depends on his lord, who depends on a larger lord or supreme overlord. Vassals are obliged to help their lord, first of all, to be in his army, and also to pay tribute to him. In turn, the seigneur is obliged to provide the vassal with land and protect him from the encroachments of neighbors and other oppressions. A vassal is immune within his realm. This meant that no one, including the overlord, could interfere in his internal affairs. Vassals of the Grand Dukes were local princes. The main immune rights were: the right to collect tribute and the right to administer a court with the receipt of appropriate income.
Thus, speaking about the state mechanism of the Old Russian state, it can be characterized as a monarchy. It was headed by the Grand Duke. He held the supreme legislative power. So big laws are known, published by the Grand Dukes and bearing their names: "The Charter of Vladimir", "The Truth of Yaroslav", etc.
The Grand Duke concentrated in your hands and executive power while head of administration. Performed by the princes and judicial functions. The Grand Dukes also performed the functions of military leaders, they themselves led the army and personally led the army into battle. Vladimir Monomakh recalled at the end of his life about 83 of his big campaigns. Some princes died in battle, as happened, for example, with Svyatoslav.
External functions The Grand Dukes executed the states not only by force of arms, but also by diplomatic means. Ancient Russia stood at the European level of diplomatic art. It concluded various kinds of international treaties - military, commercial and other. As it was then accepted, contracts had oral and written forms. Already in the X century. The ancient Russian state entered into contractual relations with Byzantium, Khazaria, Bulgaria, Germany, as well as with the Hungarians, Varangians, Pechenegs, etc. Diplomatic negotiations were often led by the monarch himself, as was the case, for example, with Princess Olga, who traveled with an embassy to Byzantium.
Having become the head of state, the Grand Duke transfers his power by inheritance, in a straight descending line, i.e. from father to son. Usually the princes were men, but an exception is known - Princess Olga.
Although the great princes were monarchs, they still could not do without the opinion of those close to them. So a council was formed under the prince, not legally formalized, but having a serious influence on the monarch. This council included close associates of the Grand Duke, the top of his squad - "princes of men."
Sometimes in the Old Russian state convened the so-called. feudal congresses- congresses of the top of the feudal lords, resolving inter-princely disputes and some other important matters.
In the Old Russian state, there was Veche, which grew out of an ancient folk collection.
Considering control system in the Old Russian state, we note that originally there was decimal, numerical control system. This system grew out of a military organization, when the chiefs of military units - tenth, hundredth, thousandth - became leaders of more or less large units of the state. Thus, Tysyatsky retained the functions of a military commander, while Sotsky became a city judicial and administrative official. However, the decimal system has not yet separated the central government from the local. However, later such a differentiation occurs.
AT the central administration develops the so-called palace-patrimony system. It grew out of the idea of combining the management of the Grand Duke's palace (court) with state administration. In the grand ducal economy there were various kinds of servants who were in charge of satisfying certain vital needs: butlers, horsemen, etc. Over time, the princes entrust these persons with any areas of management, one way or another connected with their original activity, provide them with the necessary funds for this. So a personal servant becomes a statesman, an administrator.
Local government system was simple. In addition to the local princes who were sitting in their destinies, representatives of the central government were sent to the places - governors and volostels. They received "feed" from the population for their service. So developed a feeding system.
The basis of the military organization The ancient Russian state was made up of the grand ducal squad - relatively small in composition. These were professional warriors who depended on the favors of the monarch, but on whom he himself depended. They usually lived in the princely court or around it and were always ready to go on any campaigns in which they were looking for prey and entertainment. The combatants were not only warriors, but also advisers to the prince. So, the senior squad was the top of the feudal lords, which to a large extent determined the policy of the prince. Vassals of the Grand Duke brought with them squads, as well as a militia from their servants and peasants. Every man of Ancient Russia knew how to wield weapons, however, very simple at that time. Boyar and princely sons were mounted on a horse already at the age of three, and at the age of 12 their fathers took them on a campaign.
Cities or, in any case, their central part were fortresses - castles, defended, if necessary, not only by the prince's retinue, but by the entire population of the city. For this purpose, as noted earlier, the princes often resorted to the services of mercenaries - first the Varangians, and later the steppe nomads (Karakalpaks, etc.).
In ancient Russia, there were no special judicial bodies. Judicial functions were carried out by various representatives of the administration, including, as already mentioned, the Grand Duke himself. However there were special officials assisted in the administration of justice. Among them are, for example, virnikov- persons who collected criminal fines for murder. Virnikov was accompanied by a whole retinue of petty officials. Judicial functions were also carried out by church bodies. acted also patrimonial court- the right of the feudal lord to judge people dependent on him. The judicial powers of the feudal lord were an integral part of his immune rights.
Public administration, wars, and the personal needs of the princes and their entourage required, of course, a lot of money (investments). In addition to income from their own lands, from the feudal exploitation of the peasants , the princes established a system of taxes, tribute.
Tributes were preceded by voluntary gifts from members of the tribe to their prince and squad. Later, these gifts became a mandatory tax, and the very payment of tribute became a sign of subordination, from which the word “subject” was born, i.e. under tribute.
Initially tribute was collected by polyudya, when the princes, usually once a year, traveled around the subject lands and collected income directly from their subjects. But the sad fate of the Grand Duke Igor, who was killed by the Drevlyans for excessive extortions, forced his widow princess Olga streamline the system of collecting state revenues. She is founded the so-called graveyards, i.e. special collection points. (Later, other ideas about graveyards appear in science).
A system of various direct taxes, as well as trade, judicial and other duties, has developed. Taxes were usually collected in furs, but this does not mean that they were only taxes in kind. Marten furs, squirrels were a certain monetary unit. Even when they lost their presentation, their value as a means of payment did not disappear if they retained the princely sign. These were, as it were, the first Russian banknotes. Because in Russia of that time there were no deposits precious metals- from the 8th century In circulation, along with furs, foreign currency (dirhams, later - denarii) enters into circulation. This currency was often melted down into Russian grivnas (about 204 grams of silver).
An important element of the political system ancient Russian society was church closely linked to the state. Initially, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich streamlined the pagan cult, establishing a system of six gods headed by the god of thunder and war - Perun. Then he baptized Russia, introducing the most convenient Christian religion for feudalism, preaching the divine origin of the power of the monarch, the obedience of the working people to the state, and so on.
In charge of Orthodox Church stood the metropolitan, appointed initially from Byzantium, and then by the grand dukes. In some Russian lands the church was headed by a bishop.
1. The social system of the Old Russian state
2. Political organization of Kievan Rus
3. Governing bodies in Kievan Rus
4. Cities of Ancient Russia
Conclusion
Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
The moment of the emergence of the Old Russian state cannot be dated with sufficient accuracy. Obviously, there was a gradual development of those political formations, which were mentioned above, into the feudal state of the Eastern Slavs - the Old Russian Kiev state. Most historians agree that the emergence of the Old Russian state should be attributed to the 9th century.
In the ninth century the East Slavic states, primarily Kiev and Novgorod (these names are already replacing the old Kuyavia and Slavia), are increasingly involved in international trade, which took place along the waterway "from the Varangians to the Greeks." This path, which ran through the lands of several East Slavic peoples, contributed to their rapprochement.
How was the ancient Russian statehood born? "The Tale of Bygone Years" reports that at first the southern Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars, and the northern - to the Varangians, that the latter drove the Varangians away, but then changed their minds and called on the Varangian princes. This decision was due to the fact that the Slavs quarreled among themselves and decided to turn to foreign princes to establish peace and order, seeing them as arbitrators to settle the disputes that had arisen. It was then that the chronicler "uttered the famous phrase:" Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no dress (order) in it. Yes, go and rule over us. "The Varangian princes allegedly did not agree at first, but then they accepted the invitation. Three Varangian princes came to Russia and in 862 sat on the thrones: Rurik - in Novgorod, Truvor - in Izborsk (not far from Pskov), Sineus - in Beloozero.This event is considered to be the starting point in the history of national statehood.
By themselves, the evidence of the annalistic code does not cause objections, but in the 18th century. German historians working in the Russian Academy of Sciences interpreted them in such a way as to prove the legitimacy of the domination of the German nobility at the then Russian imperial court, moreover, to justify the inability of the Russian people to creative public life both in the past and in the present, its "chronic" political and cultural backwardness.
In addition to the Slavs, some neighboring Finnish and Baltic tribes entered the Old Russian Kiev state. This state, thus, from the very beginning was ethnically heterogeneous - on the contrary, multinational, multi-ethnic, but its basis was the Old Russian nationality, which is the cradle of three Slavic peoples - Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians and Belarusians. It cannot be identified with any of these peoples in isolation.
The purpose of the work is to consider the political system of the Old Russian state.
To achieve this goal, we define the tasks of the work:
1) To highlight the emergence of the Old Russian state;
2) Describe the social structure of the Old Russian state;
3) Outline the state and political structure of the Old Russian state.
The social structure of the Old Russian state was complex, but the main features of feudal relations were already quite clearly looming. Formed feudal ownership of land - the economic basis of feudalism. Accordingly, the main classes of feudal society were formed - feudal lords and feudal-dependent peasants.
The most important feudal lords were princes. Sources point to the presence of princely villages where dependent peasants lived, working for the feudal lord under the supervision of his clerks, elders, including those who specially observed field work. The boyars were also big feudal lords - the feudal aristocracy, which grew rich due to the exploitation of the peasants and predatory wars.
With the introduction of Christianity, the church and monasteries became collective feudal lords. Not immediately, but gradually, the church acquires land, the princes grant it a tithe - a tenth of the income from the population and other, including judicial, income.
The lowest stratum of the class of feudal lords consisted of combatants and servants, princely and boyar. They were formed from free people, but sometimes even from serfs. Cursing before the master, such servants sometimes received land with the peasants and became exploiters themselves. Article 91 of Russian Pravda equates the combatants in order of succession to the boyars and opposes both to the smerds.
The main right and privilege of the feudal lords was the right to land and exploit the peasants. The state also protected other property of the exploiters. The life and health of the feudal lord were also subject to enhanced protection. For an encroachment on them, a high measure of punishment was established, differentiated depending on the position of the victim. The honor of the feudal lord was also highly guarded: insult by action, and in some cases by word, also entailed serious punishments.
The bulk of the working population were smerds. Some researchers believed that all villagers were called smerds (B.D. Grekov). Others (S.V. Yushkov) - believe that smerds are part of the peasantry, already enslaved by feudal lords. The latter point of view seems to be preferable.
The smerds lived in communities that grew out of the tribal system, but in the Old Russian state they no longer had a consanguineous, but a territorial, neighborly character. The rope was bound by mutual responsibility, a system of mutual assistance.
In the Old Russian state, a figure of a typical feudal-dependent peasant appears - a purchase. Zakup has his own household, but need makes him go into bondage to the master. He takes a kupa from the feudal lord - a sum of money or assistance in kind and, because of this, is obliged to work for the owner. The labor of purchase does not go towards the payment of the debt, it acts, as it were, only as the payment of interest on the debt. Therefore, the purchase cannot work out the kupa and practically remains with the master for life. In addition, the purchaser is responsible for damage caused by negligence to the master. In the event of an escape from the master, the purchase automatically turns into a serf. The theft committed by purchase also leads to servility. The master has the right of patrimonial justice in relation to the purchase. Russkaya Pravda notes that the feudal lord has the right to beat the negligent purchase (Article 62 of the Trinity List). A purchase, unlike a serf, has some rights. He cannot be beaten “not for the cause”, he can complain about the master to the judges, he cannot be sold into slaves (with such an insult, he is automatically released from his obligations towards the master), his property cannot be taken away with impunity.
In the multi-structured ancient Russian society, there was also an "involuntary servant". Russian Pravda calls an unfree man a serf or servant, and an unfree woman a slave, uniting both of them with the common concept of "servants".
The servants were almost completely disenfranchised. Russkaya Pravda equates it with cattle: "From the servants, the fruit is like from cattle," says one of its articles. In this regard, the servants of the Old Russian state resembled ancient slaves, who were called in Rome "talking tools." However, in Russia, serfs did not form the basis of production, slavery was predominantly patriarchal, domestic. It is no coincidence that Russkaya Pravda singles out the categories of serfs whose life was protected by a higher punishment. These are all kinds of service personnel of the princely and boyar court - servants, educators of children, artisans, etc. Over time, the process of turning serfs into feudal-dependent peasants also develops. They became the first serfs.
In the Old Russian state, there was still no enslavement of the peasants. Feudal dependence can historically exist in various forms. This stage in the development of feudalism is characterized by the absence of attachment of the peasant to the land and the absence of the personality of the feudal lord. Even a purchase, if he somehow contrives to collect money to pay the debt, can immediately leave his master.
Large and numerous cities existed in the Old Russian state. Already in the IX - X centuries. there were at least 25 of them. In the next century, more than 60 cities were added, and by the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion in Russia there were about 300 cities. Merchants, who were a privileged category of people, stood out among the urban population. This applies especially to guests engaged in foreign trade. Skillful artisans also lived in Kyiv, Novgorod and other cities, building magnificent temples and palaces for the nobility, making weapons, jewelry, etc.
Cities were centers of culture. The ancient Russian village was illiterate for a long time. But in the cities, literacy was widespread, not only among merchants, but also among artisans. This is evidenced by both numerous birch bark letters and author's inscriptions on household items.
As you can see, estates are already taking shape in the Old Russian state, i.e. large groups of people united by the unity of legal status. Therefore, one can hardly agree with some domestic and foreign authors who believe that the estate system was characteristic only of Western feudalism.
The Old Russian state was multi-ethnic, as already noted, moreover, from the very beginning. "The Tale of Bygone Years", listing the tribes that allegedly invited the Varangian princes, also names clearly non-Slavic tribes - Chud and all. As the Slavs moved to the northeast, they inevitably entered the area of settlement of the Finnish tribes. However, this process was mostly peaceful and was not accompanied by the subjugation of the indigenous population. In the vast forests of the Volga basin and beyond, there was enough space for everyone, and the Slavs peacefully mixed with the local tribes. With the introduction of Christianity, this synthesis was facilitated by the same baptism of all pagans - both Slavs and Finns. The Russian Metropolitan Hilarion, in his "Sermon on Law and Grace" (XI century), speaks of the equality of all Christian peoples, by no means emphasizing the priority of the Russians. In the legislation, we will also not find any advantages for the Slavs, for Russia. Moreover, Russkaya Pravda provides certain advantages in the field of civil and procedural law for foreigners, based on the principles of traditional Russian hospitality.
The ideas of internationalism, the absence of any chauvinism, also permeate ancient Russian literature.
The history of Kievan Rus, the chronological framework of which most historians define as the 9th-beginning of the 12th centuries, can be conditionally divided into three periods:
IX - the middle of the X century. - initial, the time of the first Kyiv princes;
The second half of the X - the first half of the XI century. the time of Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise, the heyday of Kievan Rus;
the second half of the XI-beginning of the XII century, the transition to territorial and political fragmentation.
The East Slavic state was formed at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, when the Kyiv princes gradually subdued the East Slavic unions of tribal principalities. The leading role in this process was played by the military service nobility - the retinue of the Kievan princes.
Some of the unions of tribal principalities were subjugated by the Kyiv princes in two stages: the unions of tribal principalities paid tribute while maintaining internal autonomy. In the 2nd half of the X century. tribute was levied in fixed amounts, in kind and in cash;
at the second stage, the unions of tribal principalities were directly subordinated. The local reign was liquidated, and a representative of the Kyiv dynasty was appointed as a governor.
The elimination of the "autonomy" of all East Slavic unions of tribal principalities meant the completion of the formation by the end of the 10th century. territorial structure of the state of Russia.
Territories within the framework of a single early feudal state, which ruled the princes-vassals of the Kyiv ruler, received the name volost. In general, in the X century. the state was called "Rus", "Russian land". The final structure of the state takes shape under Prince Vladimir.
He put his sons to reign in the 9 largest centers of Russia.
the unification of all East Slavic tribes under the rule of the great prince of Kyiv;
the acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and the protection of trade routes that led to these markets;
protection of the borders of the Russian land from the attack of the steppe nomads.
The ancient Russian state in the form of government is an early feudal monarchy. In addition to the monarchical element, which is undoubtedly the basis, the political organization of the Russian principalities of the Kievan period also had a combination of aristocratic and democratic rule.
The monarchical element was the prince. His brothers, sons and combatants carried out:
1) running the country
3) collection of tribute and duties.
The aristocratic element was represented by the Council (Boyar Duma), which included senior warriors - the local nobility, representatives of cities, and sometimes the clergy.
In 882, a change of dynasties took place on the Kievan table. Power was seized by the Varangian king Oleg (882-912), who united Southern and Northern Russia in one political system.
At the end of the ninth - beginning of the tenth century. the power of the Kyiv prince already extended to the glades, Novgorod Slovenes, Krivichi, northerners, Radimichi, Drevlyans, Croats, streets, to non-Slavic tribes of Chud and Meryu. The territorial growth of Kievan Rus is associated with the military campaigns of Oleg, but this process was based on internal factors - the economic, political and cultural consolidation of the Eastern Slavs.
Significant success was achieved by Kievan Rus at the beginning of the 10th century. and in foreign policy. In 907, Prince Oleg's campaign against Byzantium took place, in which, according to the chronicle, an 80,000-strong army took part. The result was an agreement concluded with Byzantium in the same year. The treaty gave the Russians certain benefits.
Another important direction of the international interests of Russia in the late IX - early X century. were the countries of the Arab Caliphate on the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea. After the death of Oleg, which occurred in 912 according to the Tale of Bygone Years, Igor (912-945) became the prince in Russia.
The beginning of Igor's reign coincided with a significant deterioration in the internal and international position of Russia. The Drevlyans were the first to leave Kyiv, on whom Igor went to war, conquered and imposed a tribute greater than that which they paid to Oleg. For three years, Igor fought against the Uglichs, until they managed to take their city of Peresechen. But even after that, the coals did not submit. Some of them left the Dnieper region, moved to the west, where they settled between the Southern Bug and the Dniester.
During the reign of Igor, the Pechenegs first appeared at the southern borders of Russia. In 915 they made peace with Kyiv and migrated to the Danube. However, in 920 this agreement was broken. From the short message of the annals - "and Igor fought Pechenga" - it is not clear which of the parties was the first to violate the peaceful conditions.
In 941, a break occurred in relations between Kievan Rus and Byzantium. Igor, taking advantage of the fact that Byzantium was at war with the Arabs, set out on ships to Constantinople. Near Constantinople, the Russian fleet was met by the Byzantine and burned by "Greek fire."
In 944, Igor carried out a second campaign against Constantinople, “although revenge himself” for the defeat in 941. Warned by the Korsunians, the Byzantine emperor sent ambassadors to meet the Russian troops and asked for peace. An agreement was concluded, which, although it confirmed the main trade interests of Russia in Byzantium, did not bring her the benefits that the previous ones gave. He abolished a number of advantages for the Russians and imposed more obligations on them: Russian merchants had to pay a duty to Byzantium, Igor pledged not to let the Bulgarians into the Byzantine possessions in the Crimea, not to attack the Byzantine lands himself.
After Igor's death due to the minority of his son Svyatoslav, Svyatoslav's mother, Princess Olga, became regent. Semi-legendary information has been preserved, on the basis of which Olga can be considered the daughter of the Pskov ruler, a vassal of the Kyiv prince.
Kievan Rus during the time of Olga maintained diplomatic relations with another major power of the medieval world - the German Empire. It is known that Olga's embassy was sent to Emperor Otto in 959, and the German ambassadors, led by Bishop Adelbert, arrived in Kyiv in 961. The bishop's mission was to spread Catholicism in Russia, but it did not achieve its goal.
Thus, Kievan Rus during the reign of Olga further strengthened ties with the most powerful states of the medieval world. An equal partner was seen in Kievan Rus and the German Empire.
In 965, Svyatoslav Igorevich became prince of Kyiv. The time of his reign passed under the sign of the firm establishment of Russia on international arena associated with overcoming hostile relations on the part of some neighboring countries. Volga Bulgaria competed with Russia in trade with the East. Khazaria, although maintaining close relations with Russia, often robbed merchant caravans coming from Kyiv. In addition, some East Slavic tribes, in particular the Vyatichi, continued to remain tributaries of the Khazaria. Relations with Byzantium worsened, which opposed the growth of Russian power.
The first step of the young 22-year-old prince was the return of the Vyatichi, who were then dependent on the Khazar Khaganate, under the rule of Kievan Rus.
Meanwhile, the events taking place in the Balkans dragged Kievan Rus into a war between the Bulgarian kingdom and Byzantium.
Scholars assess Svyatoslav's activities in different ways, since the motives and results of his actions were not unambiguous. Concerned about the high international prestige of Kievan Rus, as well as about strengthening its economic position in the Black Sea markets, Svyatoslav did not show the same interest in the internal affairs of the country. Being a talented commander who won a number of brilliant victories, he, however, could not properly assess the danger to Russia from the Pechenegs.
3. GOVERNING BODIES IN KIEVAN RUSSIA
The formation of the ancient Russian state is one of the most important and complex scientific problems of Russian history.
In an independent ethnic community, the Eastern Slavs stand out in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. By the VI century. the Eastern Slavs formed the first pre-state associations - unions of tribes. Unions were headed by military leaders - princes and tribal nobility. The supreme governing body was the people's assembly - veche, at which all the most important issues were decided. The inheritance of the reign went along the line of the clan.
The form of social relations that existed among the Slavs in the 7th-8th centuries. can be defined as "military democracy".
By the 8th century the state-political formations of the Slavs are taking shape, which in the scientific literature are also called proto-state formations. The first of them was the northern one with the center in Novgorod, headed by the Slovenes (Slavia), the second - the southern one, headed by the glades and the center in Kyiv (Kujavia). A number of researchers believe that there was a third association, but some call it Ryazan, others Chernigov (Artania) as its center. According to Academician B.A. Rybakov, on the basis of the Polyansky union of tribes and part of the northerners, a large association of Rus was formed.
At present, disputes continue around the theme of the ethnic origin of the Russian princely dynasty and the Rus, which is popular in Russian historiography. The researchers were divided into two camps - Normanists and anti-Normanists.
At present, historians have agreed that the Scandinavians acted under the name of the Varangians on the lands of the Eastern Slavs. They called themselves Vikings (“people of the bays”), in Russia they were called Varangians, and in Western Europe they were Normans (“northern people”).
Modern researchers recognize that the Varangian element played an important role in the formation of Russian statehood, but this statehood itself arose long before the Norman invasion. There were all the necessary prerequisites for this. The formation of statehood among the Eastern Slavs coincided with the decomposition of tribal, kinship relations and was due to it. Tribal relations were replaced by territorial, political and military ties.
The formation of the Old Russian state is traditionally conditionally dated to 882, when Oleg (879-912) captured Kyiv and turned it into the center of a united state.
Despite the Varangian origin of Rurik and Oleg, the created state was Slavic, not Varangian. The success of the Varangians was due to the fact that their activities objectively contributed to the unification of the Slavic tribes into one state, which began long before the Varangians and independently of them.
The state in Russia was created simultaneously with the European medieval states.
Old Russian statehood went through three stages in its development:
initial (mid-IX - end of X century) - rulers Rurik (862-879), Oleg (879-911),
Igor (912-945), Olga (945-969), Svyatoslav (965-972);
heyday (late X - first half of the XI century) - Vladimir I (980-1015), Yaroslav (1015-1054);
decline, decay (second half of the 11th - first third of the 13th century) - Vladimir II Monomakh (1113-1125) and others.
According to the form of government, Kievan Rus was an early feudal monarchy. At the head of the state was the Grand Duke of Kyiv, who owned the highest economic, administrative, judicial and military power. However, he was not the sole ruler of the state, and his power had not yet acquired a distinctly hereditary character.
The princely throne, by tradition, was to be occupied by the eldest member of the princely family. The prince could not single-handedly and voluntarily appoint the heir to the throne. Since the supreme power belonged not to an individual or family, but to the princely family as a whole, the sign of physical seniority played a decisive role in claims to the throne. Upon the liberation of the Kyiv throne, it was occupied by the eldest of the princes. This order of succession to the throne is called regular or dynastic. Gradually, the patrimonial, hereditary principle becomes a new way to resolve disputes. Land and power, previously owned by the father, passed to the son.
The prince ruled with the help of a squad, divided into an older one (“boyars”, “husbands”) and a younger one (“gridi”, “lads”, “children”). The senior squad was actually the princely council. Together with her, the prince made decisions about campaigns, collecting tribute, building fortresses, etc. The squad was maintained by the prince at his expense: at the expense of booty from campaigns of conquest, deductions from tribute and court fees. In the bowels of the squad organization, even before the formation of the Old Russian state, the so-called. decimal, or numerical system of management, which subsequently spread to cities and communities: the population was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands, headed, respectively, by tenths, hundredths, thousands.
The princely administration was formed from the combatants, the most important role in which belonged to the representatives of the prince in the field: posadniks (governors) - in cities and volosts - in rural areas. They did not receive a salary for their service and were supported by fees from the population - the so-called. stern. Such a system was called feeding, and officials were called feeders.
Separate functions or management of branches of the princely palace economy were carried out by elders and tiuns, appointed from the prince's servants. Accounting for the tribute collected was carried out by tributaries, the trade duty - to wash - was collected by the collectors, the monetary fine for the murder - viru - virniki, the duty for the sale of horses - spot - spotters.
Despite some growth in the princely administration, the state apparatus of the Old Russian state remained primitive. State and palace functions have not yet separated from each other and were carried out by the same persons.
In fact, the Old Russian state was a federation of lands under the suzerainty of the Kyiv prince. In the 70s. 11th century appears new form state administration congresses of princes ("snema"). At these feudal forums, gathered at the initiative of the Kyiv princes, the issues of division of lands, vassalage were resolved, inter-princely contradictions and conflicts were settled.
The development of feudal relations contributed to the strengthening of the position of local feudal lords - princes and boyars. They were obliged to serve the Grand Duke, but they were full masters in their estates, they had the right of immunity, i.e. carried out some state functions in their possessions.
In the conditions of increasing feudal fragmentation, two centers of power gradually took shape - the princely palace and the boyar estate. The decimal control system was replaced by the palace-patrimonial one. in which power was divided between large landowners - the prince and the boyars, and the implementation of the most important state functions was entrusted to their representatives, who were both officials and managers of the patrimonial economy.
In the early feudal monarchy, an important state function was performed by the people's assembly veche (from "broadcast" - to speak). The People's Veche corresponds to the French. the word "parliament", i.e. the place where people talk about state affairs. The competence of the veche originally included all issues of state government, legislation, and the court. Gradually, this circle narrowed, and only the functions of control over administration, elections and removal of representatives of the administration, questions of war and peace, etc. remained in the veche. Sometimes the veche elected princes, concluded an agreement with them (“row”).
Local government was carried out by trusted people of the prince, his sons, and relied on military garrisons led by thousands, centurions and tenths. Current management was carried out by city and local communities, hundreds and vervi, as well as the princely administration.
Justice was carried out by the prince or his representatives on the basis of customary law and the norms of Russian Truth.
THEN. The princely government from Kyiv was built on a numerical, and then - the palace-patrimonial system, covering all regions of the tribal territories that Kyiv imposed tribute.
The apparatus of power was formed from princely warriors and tribal aristocracy. By the time of the collapse of the Old Russian state, there were three forms of government: Princely, Boyar and Veche.
Social differentiation was consolidated by the laws adopted by the authorities, the main source of state legislation was Russkaya Pravda.
The specific period in the history of Russia is usually divided into two stages: pre-Mongolian and Mongolian.
In the second half of the XII century. in Russia, the process of formation of a system of separate principalities was completed. A period of feudal fragmentation began, which covered the XIIXV centuries.
Economic prerequisites for fragmentation: the existing system of subsistence farming; lack of trade.
Socio-political prerequisites: the boyars, having turned from the military elite (combatants, princely husbands) into landowners, strove for political independence; there was a process of "settlement of the squad on the ground", in the financial field it was accompanied by the transformation of tribute into feudal rent. Conventionally, these forms can be divided as follows: tribute was collected by the prince on the grounds that he was the supreme ruler and defender of the entire territory to which his power extended, rent was collected by the owner of the land from those who lived on this land and used it.
Foreign policy factors: the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols; the disappearance of the ancient trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks".
In the first half of the XIII century. Russian principalities after the defeat by the Mongols fell into the position of tributaries of the Golden Horde. The principalities retained their statehood, Church and administration, but were forced to pay taxes, the collection of which was entrusted to one) "of the princes. This assignment was secured by the issuance of the Khan's" label ". Receiving this symbol gave the right to the title of Grand Duke and political and military support from Saray (capitals of the Horde). Russian princes were obliged to supply Mongolia and the Horde with tribute and recruits for the Khan's army. The Khan of the Golden Horde was a vassal of the Great Khan, whose capital was transferred from Mongolia to China in the middle of the 13th century. Collection of taxes and mobilization of Russians in the Mongolian the army was carried out according to the orders of the great khan, sealed with the signature of the khan of the Golden Horde.
Tributes and requisitions, counting the population, punitive and police functions on the territory of the Russian principalities were carried out by the Baskaks.
At the end of the XIII century. the system of taxation implemented by the Mongols changed. The Russian Church was exempted from paying taxes and conscripting people subject to it into the Mongolian army. Veliky Novgorod was guaranteed autonomy and the right to free trade. The Russian princes were given the right to independently collect taxes.
The actions of the Russian princes, vassal to the khan, were monitored by the khan's representatives. The principle of "divide and rule" manifested itself in the creation of 4 great principalities at once on the territory of conquered Russia - in Vladimir, Tver, Ryazan and Nizhny Novgorod. Each of the great princes himself collected tribute for the khan on the territory of his principality. Unlike China and Persia, in most of Russia, the Mongols left local Russian princes in power as their vassals. Only in the southern regions (Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Podolia) did the Mongols introduce their direct rule. Khan had supreme power throughout the Russian lands, solving all legal and financial issues. All Russian princes were under the jurisdiction of the highest court of the Golden Horde, disputes between the Russians and the Mongols were resolved in the Mongolian courts. Disputes between Russians among themselves were considered by Russian princes.
Three times (from 1245 to 1274) the Mongols conducted a census. The number of mobilized Russians depended on the size of the populated territory, and a decimal system was established. Russia was divided into "tens", "hundreds", "thousands" and "darkness". The Mongolian army took one recruit out of 10 men living in this territory. The real number of administrative-territorial "hundreds" was 2000, and "darkness" - 200,000 men. When collecting taxes, each district became a unit of measurement. All eastern and western Russia was divided into 43 "darkness", and this calculation included only rural areas, cities were taxed in a special order. In rural areas, tribute was calculated in the form of a land tax for each agricultural unit (“plough”, “plough”). Merchants in cities paid taxes on capital or turnover.
Basically, the princes of the period of Mongol rule concentrated all their managerial energy on internal administrative and judicial activities. The princely court became the center of the state. The most influential courtier became the head of the governing body of his estates. The servants of the prince - the petty nobles - were the main pillar of power as a social group. Court ranks acquired the significance of state ranks. It was during the period of feudal fragmentation in Russia that the palace and patrimonial system of government was developed.
The weakening of the power of the Mongol khans in Russia made the Russian princes autonomous rulers. At the same time, the princes were ready to use the administrative and military machine that the Mongols had created for their own purposes. Encountering no resistance either from the veche democracy or from the boyar aristocracy, the princes tried to strengthen their personal and hereditary power, turning all estates into "servicemen", and the power into autocratic power.
THEN. the domination of the Mongols contributed to a change in the principles of government - centralization, the cruelty of criminal law intensified, the taxation system changed. At the same time, the landowning elite became more and more attached to their fiefdoms. A landownership system was also formed. In the legislation the state interest amplifies. However, the region where the preconditions for the subsequent unification of Russian lands are formed is the northeast (Vladimir-Suzdal, later the Moscow principality).
4. CITIES OF ANCIENT RUSSIA
Cities of Ancient Russia... They can trace the history of our country, all the stages of its gradual development, change and formation. In these cities, literally every stone breathes history, the glory of victories and the bitterness of defeats. Having lived a long life, they served as the scene of significant historical events.
The ancient cities that still exist today have shown amazing resilience, managed to survive, having gone through the trials of centuries. Each of them is famous for its historical and architectural significance. In many, fortress walls, earthen ramparts, ancient cathedrals and monasteries are still preserved - evidence of former power and beauty that does not fade with time.
The mother of Russian cities - this is how Kyiv is usually called in historical literature. Kyiv is indeed one of the oldest cities in Russia. It already existed in the second half of the 5th - early 6th centuries as a cultural and political center of the Polyan union of tribes. chronicles call the founders of the city three brothers - Kyi, Shchek and Khoriv. The city was named after the elder brother. Already under the first Kyiv princes of Scandinavian origin - Askold and Dir - the city gained great political weight.
Kyiv stood on the most important trade routes "from the Varangians to the Greeks", to Constantinople, to Asia, to the Don, to Novgorod, and thereby attracted the attention of the princes who settled in the north.
Already in the initial period of existence - Kievan Rus - Kyiv occupied a significant territory. Like most Slavic cities, it was fortified with an earthen rampart with wooden walls and surrounded by a deep moat. Defensive structures were necessary, as the capital fought against external enemies.
The year 1240 became fatal for Kyiv: in December, the hordes of Batu Khan approached its walls, and after a heroic defense that lasted, according to the chronicler, ten weeks and four days, the city was captured and destroyed, most of its inhabitants died. With the departure of the Mongol-Tatars, life in the city began to gradually revive, and after five or six years Kyiv had a considerable population. The economy and international trade improved. Kyiv was visited by merchants from Poland, Germany and other countries.
In the 19th century Kyiv turned into one of the major commercial and industrial centers of Russia. This was largely facilitated by the development of shipping along the Dnieper, which increased the volume of traffic and goods supplied to the city. The Epiphany fair was transferred to Kyiv, to Podil, which was called Kontraktovaya. About 10 thousand people visited the fair during its work. The industry began to develop rapidly. By the middle of the century, 59 factories and 14 factories were operating in Kyiv.
The population of the city increased rapidly due to the peasants who were looking for work in the city. With the growth of industrial enterprises, the influx of people into the city increased. Statistics show that by 1861 the number of inhabitants of Kyiv was 65 thousand people, at the end of the 19th century - 250 thousand people, and by 1913 - about 630 thousand. Despite the fact that Kyiv was intensively built up with new residential buildings, more than 1,000 huts and dugouts still stood within the city.
With the construction of railways, with the further development of shipping on the Dnieper, Kyiv becomes a significant transport hub. From the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the city administration began to pay more attention to the development of the urban economy. Centralized water supply was added to local water supply systems. The streets of the city were illuminated by thousands of electric lamps. In 1892, the first electric tram appeared in Kyiv, the first in Russia and the second in Europe. Since 1888, telephone communication has been working in the city. Kyiv, "the mother of Russian cities", by 1914 became the third most important city in the Russian Empire.
Prior to the First World War, Kyiv ranked fourth in Russia in terms of population, third in built-up area and was considered one of the best Russian cities in terms of public amenities.
CONCLUSION
The Old Russian state was an important milestone in the history of the peoples of our country and its neighbors in Europe and Asia. Ancient Russia became the largest European state for its time. Its area was more than 1 million square meters. km, and the population is 4.5 million people. Naturally, it had a strong influence on the fate of world history.
The Old Russian state, created by the Old Russian people, was the cradle of the three largest Slavic peoples - Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
Ancient Russia from the very beginning was a multi-ethnic state. The peoples that entered it then continued their development as part of other Slavic states that became its successors. Some of them assimilated, voluntarily lost their ethnic independence, while others have survived to this day.
In the Old Russian state, a form of early feudal monarchy developed, which was then preserved by its successors for several centuries.
Ancient Russian law was of great importance, the monuments of which, especially Russkaya Pravda, survived to the Muscovite state. They also had significance for the law of neighboring peoples.
The objective historical processes of the development of feudalism led to the withering away of the Old Russian state. The development of feudal relations, which gave rise to Ancient Russia, led, in the end, to its collapse, the inevitable process of establishing feudal fragmentation in the XII century.
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