Does Ukraine need a fight against borrowing words from foreign languages: opinions - REX news agency. Brief dictionary of Polish borrowings in Ukrainian Hungarian borrowings in Ukrainian

- - words or expressions borrowed by the Ukrainian language from the Turkic languages. Version of the encyclopedia "Ukrainian language" Turkisms are the result of Ukrainian-Turkic language contacts. There are about 4 thousand Turkisms in the Ukrainian language (excluding ... ... Wikipedia

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Eloquent and melodic, colorful and interesting Ukrainian words take root perfectly in the world. In the selection of Espreso.TV - top twelve such words

"What a beautiful word!
Vono is not light, but all lights ... "

With these words, Vladimir Sosyura very accurately conveyed the cosmic greatness of his native word in all its facets, meanings, shades and relationships. Because his "all worlds" sounds meaningful, in the best sense: we can state that our colorful, actually Ukrainian, words have taken root in the world. They recognize us!

The history of our language would not fit into several volumes. However, it is still being written, because it is still little studied, it contains many contradictions and doubtful theories, especially now.

The Ukrainian language occupies a sad primacy, because it is the language that was most suppressed and eradicated (in its entire history, there are more than 130 official acts and circulars with instructions either to limit its existence, or to destroy it altogether).

However, our speech functioned and functions like a living organism - it develops and grows stronger. We can already talk about his state heights and the noticeable attention paid to him by both Ukrainians and people from other parts of the world.

The Ukrainian language is spoken in Belarus, Russia, Poland, Slovakia, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, USA, Portugal, Spain, Great Britain, Canada, Latin America, Australia, Italy, Greece, they, according to researchers, used by more than 45 million people in the world.

Therefore, it is becoming common Ukrainianisms, that is, words borrowed from the Ukrainian language by other languages ​​of the world, which fully function in the languages ​​of different parts of the globe. Most of all, of course, they are among those peoples who are closest to us territorially - in Polish, Russian, Belarusian, Romanian.

Colorful Ukrainian words are also found in other languages ​​- English, French, German, Italian, Hungarian, etc.

Usually they denote Ukrainian realities, elements of Ukrainian customs, objects of Ukrainian life, that is, in these languages ​​they appear exoticisms(words borrowed into a language from other languages ​​to refer to the realities of life of another people or country), as well as ethnographisms(words that denote the cultural and everyday phenomena of a certain people in a certain period of its development).

Borsch

It's nice that Ukrainian words, which in foreign languages ​​act as exoticisms, become not just a lexical unit in the dictionary, but acquire practical application. With such a word, many peoples of the world have, for example, the word "borsch". We can say with confidence that our word "borscht" has become globalized, because all over the world "Ukrainian borscht" is also one of the most famous first courses.

• borshch - in Belarusian
• borsch - in Italian
• Borschtsch - in German
• barszcz - in Polish
• borscht in Russian
• borș - in Romanian
• Borscht - in French
• boršč - in Czech
• borscs - in Hungarian

Vareniki

Most of all Ukrainianisms are in Russian and Polish. Some of them got into the Russian language as early as the 19th century, and even earlier ( cooper, dumpling, dumpling, cake, casing, lad, grain grower, schoolboy). Some of them even supplanted their Russian counterparts: "apiary" (Russian "beekeeper"), "syrnik" (Russian "cottage cheese"), "farmer" (Russian "farmer"), "stubble" (Russian "stubble "), "buckwheat" (Russian "buckwheat").

Ukrainism "vareniki" is also firmly rooted both in the dictionaries of the Russian (English, Belarusian) languages ​​and in the culinary culture of these peoples.

Vareniks - in English

vareniki - in Belarusian

dumplings - in Russian

Hopak

In Polish, borrowed from Ukrainian words such as hopak, bogatir, gang, garbuz, guk, gukati, golota, duzhiy, succession, sweet cherry, buckwheat, godovati, mayachiti, cathedral and others.

Hopak- a traditional Ukrainian dance of Zaporizhia origin, as well as the actual Ukrainian martial art - have gained great popularity in the world. Since the hopak performance techniques contain many elements that are not common in other nations and are similar to military equipment, this word has not found a translation in other languages, but they have (like the concept itself) in our Ukrainian sound.

Hopak - in English

hapak - in Belarusian

Hopak - in Spanish

Hopak - in Italian

Hopak - in German

Hopak - in Polish

Hopak - in Romanian

hopak - in Russian

Hopak - in French

Hopak - in Czech

Hopak - in Hungarian

Cossack

Since the 16th century, Ukrainian words have been enriched and French. Among the Ukrainianisms there appear such: threshold, Cossacks, chickens, sich, otaman, haydamak, centurion, jura, foreman, mace, bandura, headman, settlement, hutir, borscht and others.

The word "Cossack" is its own Ukrainian: a free, independent person, a defender of his land, an adventurer, but with " light hand"of the Ukrainian dictionary, it has perfectly taken root in the dictionaries of other languages ​​of the world.

Cossack - in English

Cossack - in Belarusian

Kosak - in German

Kozak - in Polish

Cossack - in Russian

cazac - in Romanian

Cosaque - in French

Cossack - in Czech

kozak - in Hungarian

Steppe

Some linguists suggest that the English steppe is an ancient borrowing from our area. Perhaps through the Polish language, where the word step is masculine, like ours, and where it also came from us. In Russian, the steppe changes gender to feminine.

Steppe - in English
Step - in Belarusian
Ster - in Bulgarian
Steppe - in German
Steppe - in Russian
Stepă - in Romanian
Step - in Slovak
Steppe - in French
Stepa - in Czech
Sztyeppe - in Hungarian

Vespers

Specific Ukrainianisms in the English language of Canadians, which denote the concepts of everyday life, customs, historical meanings (dumi "thoughts", Metelitsya, Hopak - the names of dances, bandura bandura", borsch "borscht", Zaporozhtsi "Cossacks", vechornytsi "evening parties").

evening parties - in Belarusian

vechornytsi - among Canadians

evening parties - in Russian

Sweet cherry

The melodic name of a juicy berry, Ukrainism "cherry" is found in Belarusian ( chareshnya), Polish (czeresnia (trzesnia), Russian (cherry) languages.

chareshnya - in Belarusian

czeresnia (trzesnia) - in Polish

cherry - in Russian

Bandura

There are also many versions about the origin of the name of our ancient folk instrument. Perhaps this word came to us from Latin (Pandura), but be that as it may, this word is characteristic of our culture and history, and through us - of the cultures of other peoples.

• bandura - in English
• bandura - in Polish
• bandura - in Russian
• bandura - in Czech

Buckwheat

The name of the fragrant and useful culture common in us is not only firmly rooted in foreign languages, but, for example, in Russian it even supplanted their sound "buckwheat".

• hreczka - in Polish
• buckwheat - in Belarusian
• buckwheat - in Russian
• hrișcă - in Romanian

cheesecake

Ukrainism "syrnik" also became a Russian word, displacing the word "cottage cheese" there, and was also borrowed by other languages.

syrniki - in Belarusian

sernik - in Polish

match - in Russian

Ukrainianisms also found in other languages. But the question of the connection of the Ukrainian language with many languages ​​of the world has not yet been studied enough. And yet, in parallel with work in this direction, we should be proud of the diversity, richness, beauty and splendor of our language: after all - 250 thousand words, among which are those that are spoken in the world!

Entire fantasy novels have been written today about the origin of the Ukrainian language and the etymology of Ukrainian words. The lack of popular philological literature forced enthusiasts, who are often not specialists in matters of language, to get down to business. However, they are surprisingly active. (Ukrainian Language Day)

Some “specialists” deduce Ukrainian almost from Sanskrit, others spread myths about imaginary Polish or even Hungarian influence, although for the most part they do not speak Polish, Ukrainian, and even less Hungarian.

Recently aroused considerable interest among visitors to the UNIAN website. Readers sent us a lot of feedback, comments, questions from the field of linguistics. Having summarized these questions, I will try to answer them on “ popular language”, without delving into the scientific jungle.

Why are there many words from Sanskrit in the Ukrainian language?

Comparing different languages, scientists came to the conclusion that some of them are very close to each other, while others are more distant relatives. And there are some that have nothing in common with each other. For example, it has been established that Ukrainian, Latin, Norwegian, Tajik, Hindi, English, etc. are related. But Japanese, Hungarian, Finnish, Turkish, Etruscan, Arabic, Basque, etc. have nothing to do with Ukrainian or, say, Spanish.

It is proved that several millennia BC there was a certain community of people (tribes) who spoke close dialects. We don't know where it was or at what exact time. Perhaps 3-5 thousand years BC. It is assumed that these tribes lived somewhere in the Northern Mediterranean, perhaps even in the Dnieper region. The Indo-European proto-language has not survived to our times. The oldest written monuments that have survived to this day were written a thousand years BC in the language of the ancient inhabitants of India, which has the name “Sanskrit”. Being the oldest, this language is considered the closest to Indo-European.

Scientists reconstruct the proto-language on the basis of the laws of changing sounds and grammatical forms, moving, so to speak, in the opposite direction: from modern languages ​​\u200b\u200bto common language. Reconstructed words are given in etymological dictionaries, ancient grammatical forms - in a writer from the history of grammars.

Modern Indo-European languages ​​have inherited most of the roots from the time of the former unity. In different languages, related words sometimes sound very different, but these differences are subject to certain sound patterns.

Compare Ukrainian and English words that have a common origin: day - day, night - night, sun - sun, mother - mother, blue - son, eye - eye, tree - tree, water - water, two - two, might - might, cook - swear, command - will. Thus, Ukrainian, like all other Indo-European languages, has many common words with Sanskrit and other related languages ​​- Greek, Icelandic, Old Persian, Armenian, etc., not to mention close Slavic ones - Russian, Slovak, Polish ...

As a result of the migration of peoples, wars, conquests of some peoples by others, linguistic dialects moved away from each other, new languages ​​were formed, old ones disappeared. Indo-Europeans settled throughout Europe and penetrated into Asia (that's why they got such a name).

The Proto-Indo-European language family left behind, in particular, the following groups of languages: Romanesque (Dead Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Moldavian, etc.); Germanic (Dead Gothic, English, German, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Dutch, Afrikaans, etc.); Celtic (Welsh, Scottish, Irish, etc.), Indo-Iranian (dead Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Farsi, Tajik, Ossetian, Gypsy, possibly also dead Scythian, etc.); Baltic (dead Prussian, Lithuanian, Latvian, etc.), Slavic (dead Old Slavonic, or “Old Bulgarian”, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Polish, Great Russian, Belarusian, etc.). Separate Indo-European branches were allowed Greek, Armenian, Albanian languages ​​that have no close relatives. Quite a lot of Indo-European languages ​​did not live up to historical times.

Why are the Indo-European languages ​​so different from each other?

As a rule, the formation of a language is associated with the geographical isolation of its speakers, migration, the conquest of some peoples by others. Differences in Indo-European languages ​​are explained by interaction with other - often non-Indo-European - languages. One language, displacing another, received certain signs of the defeated language and, accordingly, differed in these signs from its relative (the repressed language, which left its traces, is called the substrate), and also experienced grammatical and lexical changes. Perhaps there are certain internal patterns in the development of languages, which over time “detach” it from related dialects. Although, apparently, the reason for the appearance of any internal patterns is the influence of other (substrate) languages.

So, in ancient times, numerous languages ​​\u200b\u200bwere spread in Europe, the influence of which led to the current motley language picture. The development of the Greek language was influenced, in particular, by Illyrian (Albanian) and Etruscan. In English - Norman and various Celtic dialects, in French - Gallic, in Great Russian - Finno-Ugric languages, as well as "Old Bulgarian". Finno-Ugric influence in the Great Russian language gave a weakening of unstressed vowels (in particular, akanye: milk - malaco), fixing g in place of g, stunning consonants at the end of a syllable.

It is believed that at a certain stage of linguistic evolution, before the formation of separate Slavic and Baltic languages, there was a Balto-Slavic unity, since these languages ​​have a huge number of common words, morphemes and even grammatical forms. It is assumed that the common ancestors of the Balts and Slavs inhabited the territories from the Northern Dnieper to the Baltic Sea. However, as a result of migration processes, this unity broke up.

At the linguistic level, this was reflected in a surprising way: the Proto-Slavic language arises as a separate language (and not a Balto-Slavic dialect) with the beginning of the so-called law of the open syllable. The Proto-Slavs received this language law by interacting with some non-Indo-European people, whose language did not tolerate the combination of several consonants. Its essence boiled down to the fact that all syllables ended in a vowel sound. Old words began to be rearranged in such a way that short vowels were inserted between consonants or vowels were interchanged with consonants, final consonants were lost or short vowels appeared after them. So, "al-ktis" turned into “lo-ko-ti” (elbow), “kor-vas” on the “ko-ro-wa” (cow), “me-dus” on the “me-do” (honey), “or-b-tee” on the “ro-b-ti” (to work), “drau-gas” to “dru-gi” (other) etc. Roughly speaking, the idea of ​​the “pre-Slavic” linguistic period is given by the Baltic languages, which were not affected by the law of the open syllable.

How do we know about this law? First of all, from the most ancient monuments of Slavic writing (X-XII centuries). Short vowel sounds were transmitted in writing with the letters “ъ” (something between short “o” and “s”) and “ь” (short “i”). The tradition of writing “ъ” at the end of words after consonants, which passed into the Great Russian language according to the Kyiv tradition of transmitting Church Slavonic, survived until the beginning of the 20th century, although, of course, these vowels were never read in Great Russian.

What language did the Slavs speak?

This language existed from the 1st millennium BC. until the middle of the 2nd millennium AD. Of course, there was no holistic language in the modern sense of the word, much less its literary version. We are talking about close dialects, which were characterized by common features.

The Proto-Slavic language, having adopted the law of an open syllable, sounded something like this: ze-le-n lie-s shu-mi-t(it reads “ze-le-ni lie-so shu-mi-to” - the green forest makes noise); to-de i-down-t med-vie-d and vl-k?(it reads “ko-de i-dou-to me-do-vie-do and vly-ko? (where are the bear and the wolf going?). Monotonously and evenly: tra-ta-ta-ta ... tra-ta-ta ... tra-ta-ta ... Our modern ear could hardly recognize familiar words in this stream.

Some scholars believe that the substratum language for the Proto-Slavs, which “launched” the law of the open syllable, was the non-Indo-European language of the Trypillians, who inhabited the present Ukrainian lands (the substratum language is an absorbed language that left phonetic and other traces in the victorious language).

It was he who did not tolerate clusters of consonants, syllables in him ended only in vowels. And it was allegedly from Trypillians that such words of unknown origin came to us, characterized by the openness of syllables and a strict order of sounds (consonant - vowel), such as mo-gi-la, ko-by-la and some others. Like, from the Trypillia language, Ukrainian - through the mediation of other languages ​​​​and Proto-Slavic dialects - inherited its melody and some phonetic features (for example, the alternation of y-v, i-th, which helps to avoid dissonant clusters of sounds).

Unfortunately, it is impossible to either refute or confirm this hypothesis, since no reliable data on the language of the Trypillians (as, by the way, of the Scythians) have been preserved. At the same time, it is known that the substratum in a certain territory (phonetic and other traces of the defeated language) is indeed very tenacious and can be transmitted through several linguistic “eras”, even through the mediation of languages ​​that have not survived to this day.

The relative unity of the Proto-Slavic dialects lasted until the 5th-6th centuries AD. Where the Proto-Slavs lived is not exactly known. It is believed that somewhere north of the Black Sea - in the Dnieper, Danube, in the Carpathians or between the Vistula and the Oder. In the middle of the first millennium, as a result of violent migration processes, the Proto-Slavic unity broke up. The Slavs settled all of central Europe - from the Mediterranean to the North Sea.

Since then, the proto-languages ​​of modern Slavic languages ​​began to form. The starting point for the emergence of new languages ​​was the fall of the law of the open syllable. As mysterious as its origin. We do not know what caused this fall - another substratum or some kind of internal law of linguistic evolution, which began to operate in the days of Proto-Slavic unity. However, the law of the open syllable did not survive in any Slavic language. Although he left deep traces in each of them. By and large, the phonetic and morphological differences between these languages ​​come down to how different the reflexes caused by the fall of an open syllable are in each of the languages.

How did modern Slavic languages ​​appear?

This law fell into disrepair unevenly. In one dialect, the sing-song pronunciation (“tra-ta-ta”) survived longer, in others, the phonetic “revolution” took place faster. As a result, the Proto-Slavic language gave three subgroups of dialects: South Slavic (modern Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian, etc.); West Slavic (Polish, Czech, Slovak, etc.); East Slavic (modern Ukrainian, Great Russian, Belarusian). In ancient times, each of the subgroups represented numerous dialects, characterized by certain common features that distinguished them from other subgroups. These dialects do not always coincide with the modern division of the Slavic languages ​​and the settlement of the Slavs. The processes of state formation, the mutual influence of Slavic dialects, as well as foreign language elements played an important role in linguistic evolution in different periods.

Actually, the collapse of the Proto-Slavic linguistic unity could occur as follows. First, the southern (Balkan) Slavs territorially “broke away” from the rest of the tribes. This explains the fact that in their dialects the law of the open syllable lasted the longest - until the 9th-12th centuries.

Among the tribes that were the ancestors of the Eastern and Western Slavs, in contrast to the Balkans, in the middle of the first millennium, the language underwent dramatic changes. The fall of the law of the open syllable gave rise to the development of new European languages, many of which have not survived to this day.

The speakers of the Proto-Ukrainian language were scattered tribes, each of which spoke its own dialect. The glades spoke Polanian, the Derevlyans spoke the Derevlyansk language, the Siverians spoke the Siveryansk language, the Uchi and the Tivertsy spoke their own way, and so on. But all these dialects were characterized by common features, that is, the same consequences of the fall of the open syllable, which even now distinguish the Ukrainian language from other Slavic languages.

How do we know about how they spoke in Ukraine in ancient times?

There are two real sources of our current knowledge of ancient Ukrainian dialects. The first is written monuments, the oldest of which were written in the 10th-12th centuries. However, unfortunately, records in the language spoken by our ancestors were not kept at all. The literary language of Kyiv was the “Old Bulgarian” (Church Slavonic) language, which came to us from the Balkans. This is the language into which Cyril and Methodius translated the Bible in the 9th century. It was incomprehensible to the Eastern Slavs, since it retained the ancient law of an open syllable. In particular, it sounded short vowels after consonants, denoted by the letters "b" and "b". However, in Kyiv this language was gradually Ukrainized: short sounds were not readable, and some vowels were replaced by their own - Ukrainian. In particular, nasal vowels, which are still preserved, say, in Polish, were pronounced like ordinary ones, “Old Bulgarian” diphthongs (double vowels) were read in the Ukrainian manner. Cyril and Methodius would be very surprised to hear "their" language in the Kyiv church.

It is interesting that some scientists tried to reconstruct the so-called "Old Russian" language, which was allegedly common to all Eastern Slavs, based on ancient Kievan texts. And it turned out that in Kyiv they spoke almost the “Old Bulgarian” language, which, of course, in no way corresponded to the historical truth.

Ancient texts can be used to learn the language of our ancestors, but in a very peculiar way. This is exactly what Professor Ivan Ogienko did in the first half of the 20th century. He studied the typos, mistakes of Kievan authors and scribes, who, against their will, were influenced by the living folk language. At times, ancient scribes “reworked” words and “Old Bulgarian” grammatical forms deliberately - to make it “clearer”.

The second source of our knowledge is modern Ukrainian dialects, especially those that remained isolated for a long time and were almost not subjected to external influence. For example, the descendants of the Derevlyans still inhabit the north of the Zhytomyr region, and the Siverians - the north of Chernihiv. In many dialects, ancient Ukrainian phonetic, grammatical, and morphological forms have been preserved, coinciding with the misprints of Kyiv scribes and writers.

In the scientific literature, one can find other dates for the fall of short vowels among the Eastern Slavs - XII - XIII centuries. However, such a “lengthening of life” of the law of an open syllable is hardly justified.

When did the Ukrainian language appear?

The countdown, apparently, can be started from the middle of the first millennium - when short vowels disappeared. This is what caused the appearance of proper Ukrainian language features - as, ultimately, the features of most Slavic languages. The list of features that distinguished our parent language from other languages ​​​​may be somewhat boring for non-specialists. Here are just a few of them.

The ancient Ukrainian dialects were characterized by the so-called full agreement: in place of the South Slavic sound combinations ra-, la-, re-, le - in the language of our ancestors sounded -oro-, -olo-, -ere-, -ele-. For example: licorice (in “Old Bulgarian” - sweet), full (captivity), Wednesday (Wednesday), darkness (darkness) etc. “Coincidences” in the Bulgarian and Russian languages ​​are explained by the huge influence of “Old Bulgarian” on the formation of the Russian language.

The Bulgarian (South Slavic) sound combination at the beginning of the root ra-, la - answered the East Slavic ro-, lo-: robot (work), grow (grow), catch (catch). In place of the typical Bulgarian sound combination -zhd - Ukrainians had -zh-: vorozhnecha (enmity), leather (each). Bulgarian suffixes -ash-, -yushch - were answered by Ukrainian -ach-, -yuch-: howling (howling), sizzling (sizzling).

When short vowels fell after voiced consonants, in Proto-Ukrainian dialects these consonants continued to be pronounced voiced, as they are now. (oak, snow, love, shelter). Stunning developed in Polish, in Great Russian too (dup, snack, love, krof).

Academician Potebnya discovered that the disappearance of short sounds (ъ and ь) in some places “forced” to extend the pronunciation of the previous vowels “o” and “e” in a new closed syllable to compensate for the “reduction” of the word. So, sto-l (“sto-lo”) turned into “steel” (the final ъ disappeared, but the “internal” vowel became longer, turning into a double sound - a diphthong). But in forms where a vowel comes after the final consonant, the old sound has not changed: sto-lu, sto-li. Mo-stъ (“mo-hundred”) turned into mіest, muest, mіst, etc. (depending on the dialect). The diphthong eventually transformed into a regular vowel. Therefore, in the modern literary language, “i” in a closed syllable alternates with “o” and “e” - in an open (kit - ko-ta, popіl - in a pe-lu, rіg - ro-gu, moment - maybe, etc.). Although some Ukrainian dialects keep ancient diphthongs in a closed syllable (kiet, popiel, rieg).

The ancient Proto-Slavic diphthongs, in particular in case endings, denoted by the letter “yat” in writing, found their continuation in the Old Ukrainian language. In some dialects, they have survived to this day, in others they have been transformed into “i” (as in the literary language): lіes, on earth, mіeh, bіel etc. By the way, Ukrainians, knowing their own language, never confused the spelling “yat” and “e” in pre-revolutionary Russian orthography. In some Ukrainian dialects, the ancient diphthong was actively supplanted by the vowel “i” (lis, on earth, mіkh, white), gaining a foothold in the literary language.

Part of the phonetic and grammatical features of the Proto-Slavic language was continued in Ukrainian dialects. So, the Proto-Ukrainian inherited the ancient alternation of k-ch, g-z, x-s (hand - rutsі, rіg - roses, fly - musi) which has been preserved in the modern literary language. The vocative case has long been used in our language. In the dialects, the ancient form of the “pre-future” tense (I will be brav) is active, as well as the ancient indicators of person and number in the past tense verbs (I - walk, we - walked, you - walk, you - holist).

The description of all these signs occupies entire volumes in the academic literature ...
What language was spoken in Kyiv in prehistoric times?

Certainly not in modern literary language.

Any literary language is artificial to a certain extent - it is developed by writers, educators, cultural figures as a result of rethinking the living language. Often the literary language is alien, borrowed, and sometimes incomprehensible to the uneducated part of the population. Thus, in Ukraine from the 10th to the 18th centuries, the literary language was considered an artificial - Ukrainized "Old Bulgarian" language, in which most literary monuments are written, in particular, "Izborniki Svyatoslav", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale of Time Litas", the works of Ivan Vishensky , Grigory Skovoroda, etc. The literary language was not frozen: it constantly developed, changed over the centuries, enriched with new vocabulary, its grammar was simplified. The degree of Ukrainization of texts depended on the education and "free-thinking" of the authors (the church did not approve of the penetration of the folk language into writing). This Kievan literary language, created on the basis of the “Old Bulgarian”, played a huge role in the formation of the Great Russian (“Russian”) language.

The modern literary language was formed on the basis of the Dnieper dialects - the heirs of the dialect of the chronicle meadows (and, apparently, the Ants union of tribes, known from foreign historical sources) - in the first half of the 19th century thanks to the writers Kotlyarevsky, Grebinka, Kvitka-Osnovyanenko, and also Taras Shevchenko .

Consequently, before the formation of a national language, Ukrainians spoke different Ukrainian dialects, using Ukrainized “Old Bulgarian” in writing.

In the princely era in Kyiv, they spoke a language “commonly understood” for the inhabitants of the capital city (Koine), which was formed on the basis of various ancient Ukrainian tribal dialects, mainly polyans. No one has ever heard it, and it has not survived in the records. But, again, the descriptions of ancient chroniclers and scribes, as well as modern Ukrainian dialects, give an idea of ​​this language. To present it, one should apparently “cross” the grammar of the Transcarpathian dialects, where the ancient forms are best preserved, Chernihiv diphthongs in place of “yat” and the modern “i” in a closed syllable, features of the “deep” pronunciation of vowels among the current inhabitants of the south of the Kiev region , as well as Cherkasy and Poltava regions.

Were modern Ukrainians able to understand the language spoken by the people of Kiev, say, in the first half of the 13th century (before the horde)?

Undoubtedly, yes. For a “modern” ear, it would sound like a kind of Ukrainian dialect. Something like what we hear in electric trains, in markets and construction sites of the capital.

Is it possible to call the ancient language "Ukrainian", if the word "Ukraine" itself did not exist?

You can call the language whatever you like - the essence of this does not change. The ancient Indo-European tribes also did not call their language “Indo-European”.

The laws of linguistic evolution in no way depend on the name of the language, which is given to it at different periods of history by its speakers or outsiders.

We do not know how the Proto-Slavs called their language. Perhaps there was no generalized name at all. We also do not know how the Eastern Slavs called their dialect in the prehistoric era. Most likely, each tribe had its own name and called its dialect in its own way. There is an assumption that the Slavs called their language simply “their own”.

The word "Russian" regarding the language of our ancestors appeared relatively late. This word first denoted a simple folk language - as opposed to the written "Slavic". Later, “Ruska Mova” was opposed to “Polish”, “Moscow”, as well as non-Slavic languages ​​spoken by neighboring peoples (in different periods - Chud, Muroma, Meshchera, Cumans, Tatars, Khazars, Pechenegs, etc.). The Ukrainian language was called "Rus" until the 18th century.

In the Ukrainian language, names are clearly distinguished - "Russian" and "Russian" , unlike Great Russian, where these names are groundlessly confused.

The word "Ukraine" also appeared relatively late. It has been found in chronicles since the 12th century, therefore, it appeared several centuries earlier.

How did other languages ​​influence the formation of Ukrainian?

The Ukrainian language belongs to the “archaic” languages ​​in terms of its vocabulary and grammatical structure (like, say, Lithuanian and Icelandic). Most Ukrainian words are inherited from the Indo-European parent language, as well as from Proto-Slavic dialects.
Quite a lot of words came to us from the tribes that coexisted with our ancestors, traded with them, fought, etc. - Goths, Greeks, Turks, Ugrians, Romans, etc. (ship, bowl, poppy, Cossack, hut, etc.). Ukrainian also has borrowings from “Old Bulgarian” (for example, region, blessing, ancestor), Polish (cheat sheet, funny, saber) and other Slavic. However, none of these languages ​​influenced either the grammar or the phonetics (sound structure) of the language. Myths about Polish influence are spread, as a rule, by non-specialists who have a very distant idea of ​​both the Polish and Ukrainian languages, the common origin of all Slavic languages.

Ukrainian is constantly updated with English, German, French, Italian, Spanish words, which is typical for any European language.

The Ukrainian people formed on the border with the Great Steppe. Initially, a strong Turkic influence was present in its ethnic type and culture. The Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsy left a deep mark here ... The Khazar influence extended to the point that the first Kyiv princes bore the title of Khagan.

Cossack - the same as Kazakh - a free man

Some historians believe that the word "Cossack" comes from the Khazars. Most historians, not agreeing with this, still recognize the Turkic origin of the word "Cossack". It is identical to the self-name of the Kazakh people - Kazak - which meant a free person among the Turks.

Historically, the Cossacks go back to the settlements of the Torks, Berendeys, Kovuy, Cherny Klobuks and other Turkic tribes on the southern outskirts of the Kyiv, Pereyaslav and Chernigov principalities. Here they carried out guard duty to protect the borders from the Polovtsians (the collective name that in ancient Russia called everyone living in the steppe - in the "Field"). The wandering Slavic people, nicknamed wanderers, also left here from feudal requisitions and duties. Here, from the mixture of peoples and cultures, a new historical community was formed - the Cossacks - which borrowed a lot from the Turks. And this applies not only to Ukrainian, but also to all other Cossacks. Due to the fact that the Cossacks began to be considered the main element in the formation of the Ukrainian nationality and statehood, the Turkic influence in the culture of Ukrainians was clearly expressed.

Through the Turks, the Cossacks came into contact with other Eastern cultures. Another ethnic group that took a significant part in the formation of the Cossacks is the Circassians (more broadly: the peoples of the Adyghe language group of the Western Caucasus). No wonder there has always been another name for the Cossacks - Cherkasy. In ancient Russia, the Circassians were called Kasogs. In this name, some also see the origins of the name "Cossacks".

Cossack Mamai

The main character of Ukrainian folklore in the XVIII-XIX centuries was a Cossack named Mamai. It was a kind of poetic and nostalgic collective image of a Cossack, which embodied the dream of the bygone Ukrainian liberty. Pictures depicting Mamai with a sedentary man on his head, playing the bandura, were copied by hand and stood in almost every Ukrainian hut. The origin of the name is quite transparent and hardly needs explanation.

A number of Ukrainian surnames are, according to some linguists, a Turkic trace. These are, for example, Karachenko, Gerashchenko (from “kara” - black), Garmyz, Chepurko (from the dialect forms of the words “red”, “beautiful”), Golchenko, Goluenko (from “goal” - hand), Ishchenko (from “seek "- stomach), etc. The characteristic ending of many Ukrainian surnames in -uk / -yuk (-chuk / -chuk), -ak (-chak), unusual for other Slavic peoples, is also considered by many to be Turkic (cf. Turkic historical names: Kuchuk, Gayuk, Kutluk, Gzak, Konchak, etc.).

Kuren, Maidan and others

Russian also has a lot of words of Turkic origin. Therefore, of great interest are Turkisms that are available only in the Ukrainian language, as well as those that were borrowed into the Russian language already from Ukrainian.

The former include, for example, harbuz, kavun, tyutyun, cauldron, kanchuk, koliba, tavern, chobot, maidan. At its core, the Turkic verb "bachiti", the adjective "chepurny", the particles "hai" and "chi". Many words were inherent in purely Cossack life and are now perceived as archaisms: bunchuk, haydamak, sagaydak, ataman, kosh, chicken. Among the Turkisms, perceived by the Russians through the Ukrainians, may include a wild boar, a shepherd, a flock, a yar. In total, linguists count up to 4,000 lexemes of Turkic origin in the Ukrainian language, borrowed from ancient times until the end of the 18th century.

Some words could come from the Turkic languages ​​to Russian and Ukrainian languages ​​in parallel and independently, or even to Old Russian (horse (d), fog, mound, san or "shana" in Ukrainian). Of curiosity are words that sound the same, but have different meanings in both languages, such as “(g) watermelon”, or, in particular, “kabak”, which is a synonym for Ukrainians for garbuza (pumpkin), and for Russians meaning drinking institution.

national life

The legendary Cossack Mamai is characterized not only by the name of a Turkic, in all likelihood, origin, but also by the textbook appearance of a Cossack. Traditional Cossack clothing - wide colored trousers, a wide sash and a high ram's hat - are characteristic oriental attributes common in the culture of the Turks, Crimean Tatars and many Caucasian peoples. Here they are merged. The Cossack combat hairstyle was first described in the annals by the ancient Russian prince Svyatoslav, but there is an opinion that this fashion already came from the steppe - from the Avars, Bulgars, and even earlier, from the Huns or even the Sarmatians.

The long-standing custom of Ukrainians to cook thick meat broth with a lot of fat has a clear parallel with traditional cuisine Turkic peoples - the famous Kazakh shurpa, etc. True, in the national cuisine of Ukrainians, lamb was replaced by pork, which was caused by the predominant development of pig breeding in the 15th-17th centuries. (Crimean Tatars, when they made their raids, being Muslims, did not covet pork), but the cooking method remained the same. The same applies to dishes made from boiled dough with filling (the Russians also borrowed them in the form of dumplings, but through the Finno-Ugric peoples).

The very same Ukrainian hut (although this word is not of Turkic, but of Ugric or Iranian origin) also demonstrates a typical example of the construction equipment of the southern steppe peoples - from unbaked brick mixed with straw and dung (dung; a word borrowed from Turkic). From such a short-lived material, according to legend, was built, for example, the capital of the Golden Horde, Sarai, from which, therefore, not a trace remained.

This article focuses only on those elements of traditional Ukrainian culture that are of Turkic and, more broadly, southern and eastern origin. It does not at all follow from what has been said that it is precisely these elements of culture that predominate in the national image of Ukrainians, or that Ukrainians somehow stand out among other Slavic peoples by the abundance of these elements.

• Ukrainianisms are words, phraseological units, as well as syntactic and grammatical constructions of the Ukrainian language used in another language (literary or colloquial). A word or figure of speech in any language, borrowed from the Ukrainian language or modeled after a Ukrainian word or expression. Ukrainianisms exist in Russian, Belarusian, Polish, Slovak, Hungarian, Romanian, Moldavian and some other languages.

  Many words and phrases of the Ukrainian language have firmly entered the active dictionary of the Russian-speaking inhabitants of Ukraine and are recorded in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language (“lads”, “zhinka”, “ogarka”, “derun”, “horilka”, and others).

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