The very first source of artificial light was, as already mentioned, the hearth. Thus, initially the dwelling was illuminated by one source located in the center. The need for additional side lighting arose simultaneously with the need for a person to express himself in rock paintings. In his work, he was assisted by a torch, which was installed in the gap between the stones. In the Middle Ages, forged clamps began to be used to strengthen the torch on the plane of the wall. It was this simple device that served as the prototype of the sconce.

In Greece and Rome, floor lamps were widespread, consisting of a tripod and a bowl with a combustible substance (often with aromatic additives). A later modification of this lamp is a candelabra. Unlike the tripod, it had a single support, wide at the base. In different cultures, the same lamp could be called differently. For example, a shandal among the Persians or a menorah among the Jews.

Another lighting device known since those times is the lamparium. Like the candelabra, it was stationary. Hanging lamps were called lampions and lampadas and were one or more oval bowls attached to ceiling beams or consoles. Oil, animal fat or oil was poured into the bowls. A wick twisted from plant fibers fell into the combustible liquid.

The appearance of the candle was a serious breakthrough in the field of creating new types of lamps. It was in many ways more convenient than all other devices - it didn’t smoke like that, it turned out to be much more economical and easy to manufacture. It was made first from animal fat, and then from beeswax with a reed wick. Later, the wick began to be made from cotton or hemp fibers. The candle gave birth to a whole galaxy of lamps. The chandelier has become an elegant branching structure. At the end of the 17th century, the chandelier was finally formed. Palace chandeliers with hundreds of candles lit up the huge ballrooms. Sconces blazed just as brightly in the piers between the windows. The corridors were lit by elaborate chandeliers. All of them were reflected in numerous mirrors and their gilded frames. Candles were extinguished with metal caps on long handles. The chandelier consisted of a massive metal frame and a large number of pendants made of glass (transparent or colored) or natural stones. She could weigh about a ton. To lower such a structure, light candles, and then raise it all, a powerful mechanism was required.

The era of kerosene that followed gave us a hit in the form of a bat lamp. The design of the kerosene lamps was quite sophisticated (one has only to think of the famous Tiffany table lamps). Until now, these lamps, which are not very practical, but trouble-free in country life, are associated with the era of decadence. And the "bat" mentioned above has been repeatedly used by designers to create new varieties of industrial-style lamps. This solution looks good in kitchens and nurseries. And numerous rehashings of table lamps and night lamps of the Art Nouveau era perfectly complement the interiors of bedrooms and offices. Modest workers - gas lamps have made a real revolution in street lighting. Their interior variety, gas horns, coexisted peacefully with kerosene lamps. Both of them desperately smoked and were not, as they say, environmentally friendly. Perhaps that is why it was worth inventing electricity.

Electricity is familiar and ordinary. There are a lot of electric lamps. The variety of their shapes and materials is simply incredible. We'll talk more about them later. In the meantime, I would just like to summarize all of the above.

In the primitive dwellings of primitive man, there was both natural and artificial lighting. Natural was divided into upper (chimney) and side (inlet). The artificial was central (hearth) and lateral (torch).

In the Middle Ages, before the advent of candles, oil lamps were used. Very few early candlesticks have survived, as during the wars they were melted down for coins. After the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, candlesticks were forged from thin sheet metal.

By the end of the seventeenth century skillful Huguenot craftsmen who fled from France from religious persecution introduced the practice of casting candlesticks from solid silver. The base, stand (leg) and the candlestick itself were cast separately, and then soldered. Cast candlesticks were heavy, durable, often with complex relief decor.

Fashion beginning of the eighteenth century. to simple, minimally decorated candlesticks was replaced in the 1730s. richer ornamentation. Some talented craftsmen adopted the opulent French Rococo style. The most elegant candlesticks of that time represent skilfully cast stands in the form of female figures holding rosettes for candles above their heads. By 1780, fashionable ornate ornamentation had given way to restrained decor of the neoclassical period. At the same time, the growth of such industrial centers as Birmingham and Sheffield ensured the mass production of candlesticks. Now they were minted from sheet silver, and the hollow parts were filled with resin, wood, and sometimes metal for stability.

For the production of less expensive candlesticks in Birmingham and Sheffield, a process of mechanical coinage was used with the laying of sheet silver in a mold with a relief pattern (from the 1760s).

Like candlesticks, candelabra were often paired. They came into use from the middle of the 17th century, but most of the surviving copies date back to the 18th - 19th centuries. At first, candelabra was made with two simple horns. The number of horns has increased since the end of the 18th century, when lunchtime shifted from daytime to evening.

A host of useful utensils, including carbon tongs and candle holders for thin candles, were also made of silver. Candle festering tongs, a two-ring scissor-like tool with a small box, were used to trim burnt wicks until the invention of the self-absorbing wick in the 1820s. Small candlesticks were intended for thin candles, from which they lit a pipe, illuminated desks or melted sealing wax to seal letters.

In the nineteenth century the decorative style, in keeping with Victorian taste, took on an exaggerated pretentiousness. In the last years of the century, casting was rarely resorted to, since this method of processing silver became prohibitively expensive, and the mechanization of production involved the production of not paired candlesticks or candelabra, but more sets.

At the end of the nineteenth - beginning of the twentieth century. many silversmiths opposed mass production. They focused on working in the style of medieval handicraft, using first-class materials and simple design in the spirit of Japanese art. From the styles of "Arts and Crafts" and Art Nouveau to Art Deco masters of the twentieth century. managed to embrace both the revival of historical styles and minimalist modern design.

The first lamps

The first lighting device was, apparently, a stone vessel with the fat of some animal and dry grass. Torches with such contents were able to light the way in dark nights and gloomy vaults of caves.

Then the prototypes of candles appeared - hollow reed stems filled with the same fat. These devices produced a lot of soot, and they were replaced by others made from beeswax with a cotton wick. A torch was also used - a thin sliver, which was clamped with a split rod.

Just think that until the 19th century, other sources of lighting for rooms, except for candles, there were no torches and oil lamps!

To light from a small flame candles there were more, in large palaces mirrors were placed next to them - it was much brighter.

Evolution lamps expanded this range. The first candelabra appeared - candlesticks for one or more candles, then appeared suspended lamps(good and chandelier). They were hung on chains in the center of churches or palaces, and were decorated with images of birds and the sun. There were fixtures for several lamps - lamparia.

Aromatic oils, oil and kerosene were used as a combustible liquid.

The palm in the invention of the first light bulb belongs to the Russians: electrical engineer Alexander Lodygin in 1872 invented an incandescent lamp consisting of needles wrapped in threads. Such lamps could burn for 40 hours.

Lodygin was the first to reveal the properties of tungsten, which became widely used in the manufacture of lamps. And finally, in 1799, the Italian physicist Volt created the first chemical current source.

Later, fluorescent and very economical halogen lamps appeared.

History of instrument development artificial lighting

Acquaintance with the history of the development of household lamps helps to better understand the relationship and mutual influence of technology and culture in these objects of the objective environment of the dwelling, which are extremely diverse in their forms. The first literary mention of the lamp we meet in Homer. When describing Odysseus and Telemachus, carrying out the suitors' weapons, it is said: "... and Pallas Athena, invisibly holding a golden lamp, shone for them."

The centuries-old history of household lamps demonstrates the dependence of their shape on the development of artificial lighting technology, materials and manufacturing technology, architecture, arts and crafts, and, finally, design.

Sources of artificial light of the ancient world - torches, torches and oil lamps. Oil lamps consisted of a vessel for hemp or linseed oil and a wick. The material for their manufacture was most often clay, less often bronze. Many examples of such lamps from the period of ancient Greece and Rome have been preserved. Due to the weak light intensity of one wick, oil vessels were supplied with several wicks, and sometimes several vessels were included in the composition of one lamp. A significant achievement in artificial lighting technology was the creation in the 5th century. BC e. Kallimachos wick from the so-called Karpasian flax, a fireproof material resembling asbestos, mined on the island of Crete. Such an “unquenchable fire” burned for seven centuries in the sanctuary of Athena in the Erechtheion. He is mentioned in the “Descriptions of Hellas” in the II century. n. e. traveler and geographer Pausanias.

How a widespread household item lamps became an object artistic creativity even in ancient times. Already at that time, their forms and designs were very diverse. At the same time, almost all types of lamps that exist today appeared according to the method and place of their installation.

Historically analyzing the evolution of the shape of household lamps, one can trace the emergence and development of their structures and decor. At the same time, stable structures that do not depend on changes in architectural and artistic styles are easily identified. Many types of structures, originating in ancient times, have survived to this day. Other types of structures proved to be less durable. For example, with the advent of electricity, the systems that existed in the 19th century became a thing of the past. portable kerosene mug lamps. Surviving structures include pendant lamps with an annular or horn structure, table lamps with a central pillar, Wall lights type "sconce" (hand). These structures arose and developed during a period when the most common source of light was a candle.

The main reason for the preservation of the original structures is their expediency and rationality, as well as a certain inertia of human consciousness, people's adherence to stereotypes. For example, the structure of a table candle lamp with a central post in the 19th century. was also applied to kerosene lamps, although, in this case, it is less appropriate. At the same time, it was necessary to mask the necessary fuel tank.

With the advent of electric lighting, new types of structures were formed that were rational with a new light source. However, many types of structures that cannot be classified as rational continue to be used in electric lamps. Today we see numerous examples of the use of structures and shapes characteristic of candle and kerosene lamps.

For many centuries, the lamp has been considered as an integral element of the interior of the home. Therefore, its form and decor developed in close connection with the form of interior equipment and obeyed the stylistic trends in this area.

The lamp has always been an object of professional and folk decorative art. At times Ancient Greece, Etruria and Rome, along with richly decorated bronze lamps, oil lamps were made in large quantities from baked clay. As examples of such ancient samples, one can cite lamps found during excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii back in the 18th century. and lamps from the excavations in Chersonese already in our time (Fig. 1).

Architectural motifs, images of people and animals, floral and geometric ornaments were widely used to decorate bronze lamps. Already at that time, it is easy to notice a lot in common in the elements of lamps and furniture. Etruscan candelabra, like furniture, had supports in the form of human legs or animal paws. Silicate glass appears in bronze oil lamps as diffusers (but rather to protect the flame from gusts of wind).

Clay oil lamps used in dwellings ordinary people are also different in shape. However, they use only animal motifs and flora and there are no architectural motifs. Most often, such lamps were made portable.

For many centuries, in the houses of peasants in many countries of Northern Europe, including Russia, the main source of light was a torch. To maintain the flame of a burning torch and store new torches, the so-called svetets were used. Most often they were forged from metal. Sometimes used as a basis wooden details. Svettsi were very diverse, they were decorated with various metal curlicues, and wooden details were carved and sometimes covered with paintings.

Artificial lighting for many centuries was carried out by candles. Safer and more convenient to use, already in the XII century. in Ancient Russia they were widely used. Earlier than others, tallow candles appeared, then wax, stearin, paraffin, spermaceti, which burned longer and gave less soot and smoke. All lighting XVI-XVIII centuries. they were various designs, with profits attached to them, into which candles were inserted. The most common were candlesticks (shandals) for a different number of candles, for the manufacture of which wood, bone, glass and porcelain were used, but the most common was durable fire-resistant metal.

With the development of foundry in Kievan Rus back in the ninth century. copper and silver chandeliers and candlesticks are made. The name "chandelier" or "polykadilo" comes from the Greek word "polykandelon", meaning a multi-candlestick. The most stable composition of the chandelier consisted of a central rod structure with complex balusters (and later with balls), from which multi-tiered candlesticks branch off (Fig. 4). In more recent times, the design of chandeliers formed the basis for the creation of many chandeliers.

Along with the chandelier in Russia, there was an even more ancient form of lamps - khoros, which was a kind of round bowl suspended on chains and framed by a ring in which candles were installed. Interesting examples of khoros are in the Faceted Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin.

Complex and large lamps were used mainly in churches, palaces and houses of wealthy people. Such lamps, as a rule, differed not only in size (chandeliers in some churches reach up to 3 m in diameter), but also in excellent finish, the use of relief carving, artistic casting, valuable materials, painting, and gilding.

A special place in the history of the development of lamps is occupied by lanterns (“running” or “remote”), which were used on the most solemn occasions (during religious holidays, during religious processions, during wedding and funeral rites) and therefore decorated with special luxury. Lanterns usually had a hexagonal shape with mica walls that protected the candle flame from the wind.

With the development of construction and architecture in the XVIII century. Numerous large mansions with rich interior decoration appeared. All this caused the need for new more efficient lamps, which were "walls" and chandeliers. Walls were shiny copper flat or concave round, octagonal or figured reflectors with candlesticks attached to them, which were hung on the wall. The bright surfaces of the walls that attracted attention were engraved, minted, decorated with patterns and images.

The most perfect in terms of lighting and architecture were multi-candle chandeliers with crystal and colored glass. These luminaires, diverse in form, dimensions, materials, manufacturing technology, are a product of the corresponding era, both in terms of architectural and technical solutions. The use of such low-power light sources as candles led to the need for large pendant lamps with a large number candles. At the same time, medieval architects had to solve the complex problem of compositional connection of weak spots of individual candles scattered in a large volume into a single whole. The creation of a single luminous volume of the lamp was ensured by the use of various decorative glass and, above all, crystal. In this regard, it is necessary to note the exceptional influence on the development of lamps, the formation and improvement of glass production.

In ancient times, glass was expensive and of poor quality. With the development of artistic glassmaking, glass for lamps is modified, takes on a different shape and color. Glass is used as the main material for the first time in Venetian candle chandeliers. The main method of their manufacture was the molding of details from the cooling mass of transparent glass, in which the Venetians were distinguished by unsurpassed virtuosity. A Venetian molded glass chandelier is usually assembled from a bundle of glass stems freely "growing" upwards from a single central glass bowl. At the same time, the stems are decorated with flowers, leaves, often intertwined, candlesticks are installed in the flowers; chains of glass rings fall in garlands; the central metal rod is hidden in the glass decorations. Venetian chandeliers, girandoles, candelabra were typical works of the Baroque.

Lamps made of raw glass (including Venetian stucco glass) are being replaced by crystal ones, which arouse the exclusive and constant interest of architects to this day. Crystal candle chandelier magnified many times visible number light spots compared to the number of candles used, created a decorative play of light on small and large faceted glass parts, based on the refraction and reflection of light, as well as on the effect of light dispersion by trihedral prismatic elements. The moving flame of light, together with the crystal, created a different visual effect under different directions of observation. Playing with light, crystal, slightly oscillating under the influence of ascending currents of warm air, united soft candles into a single composition and created an exceptional emotional effect, turning the lamp into a light-colored structure, unsurpassed in decorative effect.

Artificial crystal, i.e. Glass, got its name from the rock crystal mineral. Crystal is soft, easy to machine - cutting, deep grinding, polishing. Cut crystal first appeared in Bohemia in the 17th century; in the 18th century In England, a purer and softer lead crystal appeared. At the heart of domestic chandeliers of the first half of the XVIII century. lies the use of a crystal dressing made of stylized oak leaves, star-shaped rosettes, curly "vases" and balls, made at the glass factory in Yamburg, and then at the St. Petersburg factory. The appearance of colored painted glass in the chandeliers of Russian artistic glassmaking is obliged. Blue and pink glass was most often used in the 70s - 80s of the XVIII century, ruby ​​and emerald green - at the end of this century. A special place in the history of the development of lamps is occupied by products of Tula craftsmen made of steel.

In subsequent years, compositional techniques were developed for placing crystal elements in lamps of various structures, as well as the shape of these elements, depending on the technology of their manufacture and the dominant architectural and artistic style.

The appearance of crystal lamps coincided with the heyday of the Baroque style. However, the artistic merits of crystal were most fully revealed during the period of dominance of Rococo, Classicism and Empire. Fine examples of crystal lamps were created by Russian architects of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

In the middle of the XVIII century. At the same time, “sets” or “sets” appear in furniture and lamps, consisting of products that differ in the way they are installed, united by a single artistic solution.

With the spread of porcelain in Europe, it began to be used in decorative elements of lamps.

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. lamps are becoming more widespread, in which bronze displaces other materials, including glass. At the same time, chandeliers with oil lamps appeared, which had significant advantages due to their greater brightness and duration of work. In these lamps, a reservoir of viscous oils was placed above the burners, which ensured the flow of fuel to the wick. Lamp glasses appeared that protected the flame from the effects of air currents, created traction and reduced soot.

Important stages in the development of lamps were the creation of "Karsel" and kerosene lamps. The first of them, invented by the Frenchman Carcel, had oil tanks with a "clock" mechanism that pumped oil into the burner. The kerosene lamp was invented by the Pole Lukasiewicz in 1853. The fundamental difference between these lamps and oil lamps was the location of the burner above the tank; this was possible due to the fact that kerosene is easily absorbed by the wick and is a light combustible. The widespread use of kerosene lamps, followed by gas burners with incandescent grids led to the need for devices to protect the eyes from the blinding effect of the hot parts of these lamps. Various diffusers made of milky silicate glass, lampshades, opaque reflectors, and screens were used as such devices.

With the spread in the XIX century. kerosene lamps, more complex in design than all previous lamps, as well as with the development of a machine method of production, the lamp gradually began to be recognized not only as a decorative element of the interior, but also as a household appliance.

The era of kerosene lighting created a number of very stable structures. Electric lamps still use some of these structures, although not always justified from a constructive point of view. In kerosene lamps, complex nodes appear for raising and lowering the lamp (candle chandeliers were lowered and raised with the help of small winches). Kerosene lamps of the second half of the 19th century. were produced both in the form of simple and cheap machine-made products, and in the form of unique expensive products using art glass, porcelain and metal casting.

The new method of production led to the emergence of new materials and technologies, but he could not quickly create his own specific, unique forms of production. The appearance of electric lighting in the early 80s of the XIX century. fell on the time of stylistic chaos. The desire of the bourgeoisie for the aristocratic respectability of their homes revived interest in antiques and led to a revival in architecture and furniture of historical styles of different eras. However, the advanced artists and architects of that time had already begun an intensive search for new ways, which led to the emergence of the Art Nouveau style, which was frankly decorative.

in electric lamps late XIX in. two directions were immediately determined: constructive (light, technological form, devoid of any decor) and decorative (use of common style forms of past eras and modernity).

Luminaires of structurally simple and expressive forms were produced by many electrical engineering firms in the USA, Germany, and France. As a rule, these were lamps for local illumination of work areas, with the ability to control the direction luminous flux. The shape of some of them was so interesting that their serial production has now been resumed. Although this move can be seen as a clear “retro” stylization, only a specialist can determine that the age of the prototype is already approaching a century.

The electric incandescent lamp made it possible to create, along with multifaceted designs, luminaires with a closed structure, directly embedded in the ceiling or wall. New source light opened for artists and architects working in the Art Nouveau style, great opportunities for creating products of expressive decorative form. Art Nouveau, according to which architects strove for an ensemble unity of the architecture of the building, its interiors and equipment, developed a complex system of stylized ornamentation based on the motifs of the plant world. This ornament was often used in lamps. As a typical example, one can cite lamps created by a Russian architect at the turn of the 20th century. for a number of mansions in Moscow. These lamps are inextricably linked with the space and equipment of the interior, as if they “grow” out of the fantastic forms of the interior. Their forms are rich in imagination and delicate taste.

And at the same time, Art Nouveau artists are no longer trying to get away from the machine form, but they want to rethink this form decoratively.

By the 1920s, when Art Nouveau had exhausted itself, trends towards simplification of product forms were rapidly spreading throughout Europe. Lamps are also restrained. Hanging lamps with a fabric lampshade, flat-shaped bowl lamps, cube-shaped hanging lanterns, wall lamps of simplified forms, desk lamp on a thin central post with a fabric lampshade, devoid of any decorations - this is the main range of lamps used at that time.

In the early 1950s, fluorescent lighting began to enter the home. The most intense process takes place in Japan, where this type of light source is the most organically suited to the traditional national forms of lamps that have been formed over the centuries. Currently, fluorescent lighting dominates the Japanese home.

In Europe, the first attempts to introduce fluorescent lighting were made as early as the 40s, but its use in household lamps was limited by the significant size of tubular fluorescent lamps, which made it possible to use them only in ceiling lamps.

A revolutionary breakthrough in this direction occurred in the late 70s - early 80s, when mass production of compact fluorescent lamps was mastered, commensurate in size with standard incandescent lamps.

And as always, innovation begins with the use of old forms. The first fluorescent luminaires for residential premises follow the structure and shape of luminaires with incandescent lamps. Only later do they acquire their own, specific forms.

Brief history of lamps

Throughout the entire stage of human existence, he was accompanied by light. And if at the beginning, primitive torches and bonfires were used as artificial light, then with the development of civilization, lighting devices have changed greatly. How did Sconce lamps appear. Inhabitants of Ancient Egypt the invention of the first oil lamps.

Such primitive lamps were meter-long columns, with bowls of oil placed on them. These peculiar lamps, as a rule, were made in the form of a flower. In ancient Greece, vessels with hot coals or tarred wood shavings were used for these purposes. Such lamps were made of clay and varnished. Hanging metal lamps are first mentioned during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Constantine. These lamps came to Russia in bulk after the adoption of Christianity and were called chandeliers. The chandelier is considered the prototype of modern chandeliers.

The very same word "chandelier" appeared later, in the XVII century, in France, and means "illuminate". At the beginning of the nineteenth century, with the advent of oil lamp chandeliers, the need to use lamps with candles disappeared, and the need to direct the light gave rise to lampshades. Since the second half of the 19th century, kerosene lamps have gained immense popularity, which, later, were replaced by lamps with electric lamps. For the manufacture of chandeliers began to use a variety of materials: metal, glass, fabric, wood, plastic.

"The light of fire, which daily dispels darkness and gloom ... This is familiar, everyday and necessary for a person in any era. People were constantly forced to turn to lighting fixtures and think about how to preserve their dim, flickering flame. Time passed, centuries changed centuries, and with them there have been changes in the way the light is maintained."

There is no doubt that initially people used fire flames as lighting devices, as evidenced by the remains of ancient hearths, which undoubtedly served not only as a heating device, but also partly as a lighting device and a torch. The primitive man, having received the divine fire in his hands, was able not only to warm and feed himself, but also for the first time illuminated the gloomy vaults of his cave.

Researchers have discovered many images of torches from Greek and Roman times, although they themselves, for obvious reasons, have not come down to us. There were practically no special changes in the design of this simplest lighting device, with the exception of actually combustible materials. The main drawback of the torch is soot, so the ancient Greeks already thought about ventilation and built some kind of chimneys. "The trunk of a date tree made of copper, arranged above the lamp and reaching the roof, pulls the soot out," wrote the ancient Greek historian Pausanias. There were special openings to remove smoke from houses that were heated in a black way.

The importance of the torch in the life of ancient Greek society can also be evidenced by the fact that in Athens, during the sacred holiday of the Great Panathenaic, competitions were held in lampadodromy - a race with torches, in which to win it was necessary not only to run first, but also to keep the blazing fire. Torches played a special role in the culture of the Ancient East. The king of Babylon, Hammurabi, like his predecessors, began his reign with the announcement of "justice", i.e. forgiveness of all debts. Standing on top of the ziggurat, he lit the "golden torch", seeing the fire of which, the inhabitants of the surrounding towns and villages also lit torches and passed on the good news throughout the country. By the way, this kind of light signaling was actively used in military affairs in all countries. ancient world, alerting the hinterland of an enemy attack.

Torches helped solve lighting problems at a later time, right up to the Middle Ages. The demand for them has always been high. So, the monks of Constantinople in the 5th century. they were specially made for sale, and the money received was invested in the purchase of threads and other necessary raw materials. "The Book of the Eparch" - a collection of laws for Constantinople merchants and artisans at the end of the 9th century. - fixes that part of the income brought by the ergastirium (workshop) was deducted for the purchase of torches.

Roman "round" lamps, covered with red lacquer characteristic of the first centuries of our era. Found in various cities of the Northern Black Sea region. I-II centuries AD

First lamps

The use of clay

fired special-shaped vessels as lighting fixtures began in the Levant at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. A little later, in the late Minoan period, they became widespread in Crete. Archaeologists discovered them in small quantities during excavations of various Greek cities in the layers of the 10th-8th centuries. BC. In later strata, they are very common, which indicates that they began to be mass-produced from the 7th century BC. BC.

Animal fat and oil (primarily olive oil) were used as fuel in the lamps. The device and configuration of lighting fixtures depended on various kinds combustible materials. Thus, lamps filled with animal fat were always open, and a wick made from vegetable fibers floated freely in the fat, and sometimes it was bent onto the wall of the lamp. This is evidenced by traces of flame found on the vast majority of specimens. Often the lamps had thick walls, moreover, many stucco lamps were designed specifically for animal fat. An interesting example can be given: during the excavations of "barbarian" settlements and burial grounds around the ancient Greek city of Chersonesus, very few lamps were found. There is no doubt that this is due to the adherence of these tribes to other types of lighting fixtures - open bowls for which animal fat was used, which, apparently, was explained not only by a different cultural tradition of the late Scythians, but also by the relatively high prices for olive oil, which was refilled in antique lamps.

Despite the relatively small size, depending on the thickness of the wick, the lamp could burn from 30-40 minutes to 2-3 hours, giving relatively little light. Nevertheless, modern experiments have shown that it is quite possible to read with two lit lamps.

Due to the ease of manufacture, apparently, the lamps were produced in the same place as ceramics, and practically did not require additional equipment. Specialized workshops for the manufacture of lighting fixtures appeared only in Hellenistic times, a typical example is the large-scale production of lamps on the Knidos peninsula in Asia Minor.

The most common type of early Greek lamps are open lamps with a sleeve in the center (conical or cylindrical shape). This sleeve was made for a finger, the presence of which provided the lamp with greater stability when carried, or for a stand on which it was easier to fix the lamp (see Fig.). Most of the lamps had handles (see the figure), the shape of which often depended solely on fashion, the wishes of the customer or the taste of the master. Thus, in ancient Greek vase painting, we find images of a woman holding a lamp with a horizontal handle (Attic red-figure jug of the 5th century BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art), or Hermes carrying a lamp with a vertical handle (bell-shaped crater, Vatican Museum). Lamps of the same shape could be made without bushings. Most lamps VI-V centuries. BC. were low and contained a relatively small volume of oil. Over time, the receptacle of the lamp became deeper (respectively, more voluminous), and the walls covered it more and more.

With the spread of the technique of stamping in the form in the Hellenistic time, the technology for making lamps improved, and they began to decorate them with flowers, rosettes, and various palmettes. The outside surface of the luminaire is coated with a glossy black or red lacquer. Sometimes the same coating is done from the inside - so that the oil is not absorbed into the porous clay (see Fig.).

Black gloss lamps were made in Athens. Olvia, Ukraine. 4th-3rd centuries BC.

Roman time lamps

The heyday of the clay lamp was the era of the Roman Empire. The transformation of colossal territories even by modern standards into a single market stimulated not only the formation of tastes and traditions, but also the emergence of the first powerful industrial centers for the production of ceramic products, capable of flooding the entire Mediterranean with their simple products. It is no coincidence that from that moment on, the compactness of the lamp and ease of manufacture were put at the forefront, which reduced its cost and facilitated transportation. In the world empire, goods made in Italy, Greece and Egypt were easily delivered by the ubiquitous Roman traders to the edge of the ecumene, to the Crimea and the Caucasus.

The shields of the lamps were decorated with various images - from deeds of deities to gladiator fights and erotic scenes (see fig.). This is a real encyclopedia of ancient life. On a lamp from Chersonesus, a naked Venus is depicted, to whom Eros standing in front of her gives a sword and a helmet. This plot is closely connected with the symbol of the political program of Julius Caesar, who always represented Venus as the founder of the Julius family. Apparently, one of the Chersonesites thus demonstrated his political loyalty to the Roman dictator, who gave independence to Chersonesos.

Ancient Greek open lamps made on a potter's wheel. The bushing in the center of these lamps had a corresponding recess on the inside and made it easier to carry the lamp. Initially, such lamps came to the Northern Black Sea region from the Ionian cities of Asia Minor, but then their own production was established. 6th-5th centuries BC.

stigma

The lamps of well-known workshops were stamped with the mark of the master. Illegal copying of someone else's, popular trademark is by no means an invention of the New Age, and in the Roman provinces crooked lamps with a poorly printed pattern were often sold, which proudly bore the mark, for example, of Northern Italian workshops or just a random set of letters. This can be easily traced on the basis of the so-called Firmalampen, widespread in the territory of modern Romania and Bulgaria.

Clay lamps were in every residential building, workshop, shop: they were hung in front of the entrance, in porticos, placed in niches in the walls or simply on the ground, at door thresholds. The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus noted that the illumination of Antioch at night was as strong as daylight. Of course, the lamp occupied its rightful place in the Roman brothels - lupanars, often, in addition to the bed, being the only decoration of a modest interior.

Once on the market, anyone could choose a lamp according to their taste, mood and purpose. From the baskets that stood around the merchant, one could extract a lamp decorated with the image of a deity (the Olympians peacefully coexisted with the Egyptian gods, the Jewish menorah or the Christian sacred monogram), an animal, or a frivolous scene that even today can make an inexperienced viewer blush. Apparently, in the workshop it was possible to order a lamp with any image.

Candelabra

Bronze candelabra served as ceremonial lighting fixtures, which were used in everyday life only by the elite of society. Usually such a candelabra was made in the form of a multifaceted rod on three lion's paws, often it was crowned with an Ionian capital with a figurine standing on it or a stand on which it was possible to mount a candle or put an ordinary clay lamp. Interestingly, primitive candelabra were also used by barbarians, such as the Sarmatians. Most often they were made of iron, forged by local craftsmen, who hardly worried about the beauty of their products.

Bosporan multi-track lamps. Panticapaeum. 1st century BC.

everlasting light

Of course, the fire illuminated not only a residential building. It can be assumed that an unquenchable fire burned in the temples in honor of various deities. "And Callimachus made a golden lamp for the goddess. Having filled the lamp with oil, the Athenians expect the same day next year; the oil in the lamp is enough for the whole time from term to term, while the lamp is lit day and night" (Paus., I, XXVI, 6-7). The altar and lamp were repeatedly mentioned together by ancient authors. Lamps were also used in rituals dedicated to the underground gods, they were also used in witchcraft. An echo of the latter was the Arabic tale about Aladdin's lamp - just rub an old copper lamp for the almighty genie to appear from there.

In addition, the light of the lamp accompanied the deceased on his last journey, illuminating the road to eternity with a dim flicker. Even the Vestal Virgins, who were walled up alive in the grave for breaking the vow of virginity, were left with a flickering lamp along with a small supply of food and water.

I consider one lamp

To illuminate public buildings and temples, along with torches and ordinary lamps, multi-track lamps could be used (see Fig.). The relatively small volume of the oil container, combined with a large number of horns, each of which burned a small flame, required constant replenishment of oil fat. This may indirectly testify in favor of the sacred load, which could be endowed with a lighting device with several horns. At the same time, one cannot fail to recall one of the well-known epigrams of the Roman satire master Martial (XIV, 41), where a slightly different version of the purpose of multi-track lamps is given:

A multi-arm lamp found in one of the settlements on the territory of the modern Taman Peninsula. 4th-5th centuries AD

In Late Antiquity, there is a tendency to coarsen the forms of clay lamps, as well as their decor. Products that came out of the master's hands were filled with a new spirit - the spirit of cold, soulless stylization. Everything was designed for mass production and marketing, for demand from the widest sections of the population with their simple requests.

Bronze chandeliers - lampadophores of the Byzantine period with numerous horns ending in horizontal rings - were clearly intended for the installation of glass lamps. It was at this time that the role of clay lamps, so important in the cult rite, disappears. According to Paul Silentiarius (563), the magnificence of the interior of the Cathedral of St. Sophia in the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, was made up of glass lamps, including carved ones, and the Byzantine historian Theophylact Simokatta, describing the funeral of Emperor Tiberius II in 582, recalled, how the mournful singing of psalms "with lit lamps" lasted all night long.

Already from the IV century. Wide circulation in all provinces of the vast Roman Empire includes glass goblets with a conical or cylindrical body, which existed until the 6th century. Their use as lighting fixtures is evidenced by the finds of such lamps with traces of oil on the walls, as well as images of similar vessels, where they are suspended at the ends of the Jewish menorah. From the very beginning, these products were not inferior in popularity to clay lamps. Water was poured into them, and on top of it - a layer of oil, into which the wick was lowered.

From the end of the 5th century and up to the 8th century. among lighting devices, the type of lampada with a hemispherical or cylindrical wide body and a narrow leg, which was inserted into the lampadophore, began to dominate. Apparently, it was precisely such lighting devices that the Syrian chronicler Yeshu Stylite had in mind when he wrote that Anastasius, the mayor of Edessa, at the end of the 5th century. ordered the artisans on the eve of every Sunday to hang crosses with five lighted "luminaries" above the benches.
The decline in the production of traditional clay lamps indicates the predominance of new lighting methods since the early Middle Ages, confidently crowding out the old ones. In addition to glass lamps, only candles could play such a role, which gradually found their widest application among lighting fixtures. Many wax candles were required on church holidays, during solemn events, funerals, fairs that gathered a lot of people. For example, when the body of Simeon Stylitus was being prepared for burial in 459, "... the mountains were not visible from the crowd, candles, incense and burning lamps", and then the whole city came out to meet the funeral procession "... with candles and chants ". Candles were different - ordinary, cheaper, and more expensive, with a special coating, sometimes even decorated with Christian symbols. The item was sold by weight.

The final victory of candles in the lighting market in Byzantine society could most likely be due to the loss of sources of external supplies. olive oil during the aggressive campaigns of the Arab Caliphate. Byzantium's loss of its African possessions - longtime major exporters of olive oil - may well have tipped the market in favor of wax candles.

Apparently, the specialty of a candle-maker (cyrularia) in the Byzantine city was widespread and, apparently, gave a good income. Kirulari produced and sold candles different kind, quality, cost, and also dealt with the transfusion of broken ones. When Deacon Stefan, who bought expensive candles "for big money" in a candle-maker's shop, slipped and broke them, he "returned the fragments to the ergastyrium." They tried to make the use of candles waste-free: they valued wax as a valuable raw material and, having collected cinders in the temple and melted wax on the edges of the candlestick, they again allowed it to be processed.

The following centuries did not bring visible innovations in the design of lighting fixtures. The impending gloomy European Middle Ages completely managed with torches and candles, and the latter were more often greasy. The stench emanating from such candles did not bother the medieval inhabitants of castles and city houses, whose whole worldly life was only a prelude to eternal life filled with bright light...

Lamp with a relief image of a bird. Chersonese. 5th-6th centuries AD

Ancient Russia

In ancient Russia, a lighted torch, fixed on a stand, served as the main lighting device; open lamps filled with fat were also used. In rich houses there could be bronze lamps or imported multi-tiered lamps - chandeliers. Wax, which traditionally served as an important export commodity, was also widespread in Russia, because beekeeping was one of the most important occupations of the population. Consequently wax candle illuminated both the house of a wealthy citizen and the temple. At a later time, a lit torch was inserted into special stands - forged from iron, the lights, which even illuminated the boyar house. Imperfect lighting devices have repeatedly led to fires in completely wooden cities. So, Russian chronicles are full of references to how, for example, "Moscow burned down from one candle."

The New Age was on the threshold, when with the invention of gas burners, kerosene lamps, and then electricity, the entire lighting system fundamentally changed, and the old lighting fixtures sunk into oblivion. However, until today, candles, small lamps filled with oil are popular, and who among us did not go at night to a flickering light that poorly illuminates the space around us ...

Let's imagine that your house is a theater stage. Although there are no scenery, curtains and technical devices for visual effects, it is within its walls that the most authentic dramas and comedies of life are played out.

If you're a fan of antiques and enjoy incorporating antiques into your home, you should check out today's Design Museum post on gorgeous and sometimes a little pompous vintage lamps.

The term "antique" in this context is a bit of a stretch, as light bulbs weren't invented until 1879, and all antique lighting fixtures used only candles and oil. Then came gas lamps, the forerunners of electric ones.

In this spacious lobby, an antique crystal and bronze chandelier really sets the tone and enhances the beauty of other similar pieces, including table lamps and paintings.

Chandeliers, like any other overhead lighting fixtures, are best connected through a power regulator.

What could be more beautiful than an exquisite, sparkling chandelier? It's like elegant diamond earrings in a lady's evening dress, creating chic and solemnity. And we would like to remind you that the scope of their use should not be limited to dining rooms and hallways. In this kitchen, for example, a luxurious Murano glass chandelier is paired with a carved sideboard, and together they create intrigue in a seemingly very cold space.

Of course, not all chandeliers look so pompous. Before us is a classic example of a modernized gas lamp of 1895 with exquisite lace shades. The right light is a powerful tool to create the right mood.

This three-arm chandelier is marked with the year of manufacture - 1920. The blackened gilding elegantly emphasizes the creamy shade of the fragile matte shades. Such a device should decorate a library or office.

Have you ever heard of girandole? This is a special lamp from the 19th century, which is installed on the table. Many of them are still equipped with candlesticks, but there are also electric modifications.

They look extraordinarily good on small coffee tables, but can become part of the dinner decor in the evening if you choose the version with candles or dimly lit bulbs.

Despite the fact that in this interior the girandole is very ambiguously combined with Asian furniture, it remains the most elegant lamp of all. Its faceted crystals shine in a special way, creating a romantic setting.

Before you is a pair of girandoles with candles and a mirror. It's easy to imagine them framing a picture above a fireplace or lighting up a sideboard in a dining room.

A sconce is a very important and often overlooked type of fixture. In the photo - a classic double-horned example of the 1900s (most likely from France). It is customary to hang such sconces in the hallway, but we can assume a more unexpected option - among the accumulation of photographs in the living room, for example. And there are also versions with miniature lampshades that are mounted directly on the light bulb.

Of course, there are more antique lamps than chandeliers and sconces. Oil lamps have been used since biblical times, and today you can find some stunning examples from the Victorian era. We see an original copy depicting a girl, a swan and cherubs, which can bring an antique mood to the corresponding interior.

Do any of you play bouillotte? It is a gambling card game popular in 18th century France played by the light of special lamps, since then also called bouillottes. The lampshade could be lowered higher or lower, leaving the faces of the participants in shadow. Dice were kept in a special bowl at the base of the lamp.

This stunningly designed office has a classic vintage lamp that you've probably seen in movies or paintings. However, it can also be imagined in a different setting.

And here we see the bouillotte that adorns the antique sideboard and does not clash with the charming chandelier above the breakfast table. Once again we are convinced that antique lamps are necessary to create a nostalgic atmosphere in a properly furnished interior.

There are many antique items that are not lamps, but easily turn into them. In the photo - table lamps, the basis of which are old butter churns. A charming peasant look in a classic rustic interior.

But the stand of this lamp is made from an old Chinese ginger vase. A little imagination and effort helped to create a unique item that will decorate a traditional living room.

The ancient figurine of the Virgin Mary was not easy to spot in the depths of the antique shop, but without it such an elegant table lamp would not have turned out.

Such information is found in the annals so often that scientists could not help but be interested in these lamps, which, moreover, did not smoke! This explains one of the still unresolved mysteries of the pyramids of Ancient Egypt: how could frescoes be applied to the walls in complete darkness without spoiling the work with the soot of lamps or torches?

Mentions of lamps that have been burning for thousands of years and which do not go out from the water

Ancient authors reported that numerous rooms of Egyptian underground temples and labyrinths were illuminated by a uniform light from invisible sources. Traditions report that underground work in the area of ​​the Cheops pyramid, as well as wall paintings of the tombs, were carried out using unquenchable lamps. In underground work, devices with luminous flexible cords several tens of meters long were also used. Therefore, there are no traces of soot in the dungeons of the pyramids and in the tombs of the pharaohs.

In 1425, an amazing eternal lamp was found in the tomb of Tulliope, the daughter of the Roman orator and philosopher Cicero. The lamp burned without oxygen for 1600 years, illuminating the body of a young girl with long golden hair! The witness of the excavations was the monk Benedicto, who was invited to look at the amazing lamp, and at the same time to establish whether this is a devilish obsession. Squeezing into a small chamber lit by smoky torches, observant Benedicto, in addition to the beauty untouched by decay, noticed a lamp in the crypt emitting a dim bluish light. The monk immediately reported the find to the cardinal. but when he arrived at the place, the lamp disappeared without a trace. None of the participants in the excavations could explain where the lamp had gone, because they were much more interested in the beautiful deceased.

Many amazing lamps were found by archaeologists on the territory of the ancient Antique world and Ancient Egypt

Many years of research by Russian scientists today allow us to get some idea of ​​​​the structure of various types of eternal lamps. For example, on the well-known ancient "wonder of the world", the Lighthouse of Alexandria (140 meters high), nine miniature eternal lamps shone brightly. There were also small glow intensifiers and other amazing devices. There are suggestions that after the destruction of the lighthouse from an earthquake, these lamps were hidden in underground storage near Memphis.

It is curious that the second emperor of Rome Numa Pompilius (715-673 BC) had an eternal lamp in the form of an opaque ball that miraculously appeared under the dome of his temple by the will of the gods.

The Greek writer Lucian (120-190 BC) testified that he personally saw in Heliopolis (Egypt) a shining stone in the forehead of the statue of the goddess Hera, which illuminated the entire temple at night.

Plutarch (45-127 BC) wrote that there was a lamp above the entrance to the Egyptian temple of Jupiter-Amon, which, according to the priests, has been burning for several centuries without requiring care.

Posanius (II century BC) described a special chapel in the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, where there was an image of Pallas Athena, brought (according to legend) by Aeneas from Troy to Italy. This image of the goddess was illuminated by a lamp that burned continuously for a year. This was confirmed by the priests of the temple, who annually on "Five days" (March 19-23) removed it from the golden chain and removed the dust. The lamp was considered sacred and did not need any replenishment with oil since ancient times.

In his writings, St. Augustine (354-430) reported on an unusual lamp that he saw in the temple of the goddess Isis (Egypt). Augustine himself made sure that neither wind nor water could extinguish the lamp.

Chronicles of the beginning of the 15th century report a sensational find in the outskirts of Rome. In 1401, near Rome, an unquenchable lantern was discovered in the tomb of Pallantus (Pallas), the son of Evander, glorified by Virgil in the Aeneid. Those gathered were surprised to see a burning lamp at the head of the bed. Judging by the date of burial, this lamp has been burning for more than 2000 years! However, as soon as the sarcophagus was opened, the flame immediately went out.

The Roman Chronicles reported that in 1485, near the Appian Way, a mausoleum with a sarcophagus was found, the interior of which was illuminated by a bluish light from a metal lamp hanging on the wall, burning for more than one and a half thousand years. There is evidence that to the north of Rome, tombs with similar lamps have been preserved.

The Roman Jesuit Athanasius Kircher in 1652 in his book "Edapus Egyptianus" described unquenchable lamps found in the dungeons of Memphis, which did not go out from the water.

The unquenchable lamp, which has been burning for 500 years, is mentioned by many travelers who described the sights of Antioch in the 6th century. AD, during the reign of Justinian. The lamp stood in one of the niches above the city gates of Antioch.

Miraculous lamps were found in Indian and Chinese temples, as well as in places of worship in Latin and South America.

In the ancient written sources of India and China, mysterious lamps are also reported, which were found in the tombs. They were also in temples, where they were shown only on special days.

Mysterious lamps were also found in the northern part of Europe.

Several similar lamps have been found in England. So, in the medieval chronicles of England it is said that near Bristol, inside an ancient tomb, an unquenchable lamp was discovered that burned for several centuries. This was reported as a common known device.

The modern press has repeatedly reported on an African village in the jungle, near Mount Wilhemina (West Irian, former Guinea). Foreign researcher K.S. Downey at a conference in Pretoria (South Africa) said: "Travelers who entered this village among the unexplored mountains were amazed at the sight of stone balls, fixed on pillars and glowing after sunset with a neon-like light."

Attempts to find out the secret of ancient lamps and hypotheses

However, none of these lamps fell into the hands of scientists as a whole. Only shards and pieces of metal became the subject of their study. However, the difficulties of scientific research did not stop researchers who were interested in the secret of eternal burning.

An interesting hypothesis on the principle of operation of mysterious lamps was put forward by the Jesuit scientist Athanasius Kircher. "Egypt has rich oil deposits," he wrote. "Cunning priests imperceptibly connected oil sources with pipes equipped with asbestos wicks. I believe that this is the only solution to the riddle of the supernatural long-burning of such lamps."

Quite a lot of recipes for making fantastic "fireproof" oil have survived to our times. However, in each of them you can find inaccuracies, perhaps deliberately made. In any case, not a single lamp burned on oil made according to such recommendations.

Some researchers have noticed that eternally burning lamps were usually found in those places where people were very reverent about keeping dead bodies incorruptible. Usually the internal organs of the dead were placed in special vessels next to the sarcophagus. In the days of the ancient kingdoms, the soul was also included in the internal organs! It was called the "rose of the heart", "pearl in the lotus flower", "inner fire", "divine spark"... It was the soul, according to the ancients, that gave life to the body. The thought involuntarily comes: what if in the ever-burning lamps there were no combustible substances or a wick at all, but instead of them the souls of the dead shone like unquenchable lamps? Of course, this fragile treasure ceased to exist as soon as outsiders invaded the tomb.

In the Egyptian "Book of the Dead" there is a chapter "On the ascent to the Light", which says that the pharaoh could leave his tomb at any time. However, for this he needed the life force stored nearby in a glass vessel...

though

Small lamps various designs had, in the main, a corona glow around balls, crystals of various shapes. The glow was of different brightness and color. Studies show that bright luminaires had replaceable power sources, the life of which was calculated up to several decades. Luminaires of low brightness had stationary power sources based on rare earth elements that can function for millennia.

For street lighting fixtures were larger. Caps were sometimes put on lamps of a bright glow, which increased the brightness of the illumination. Interestingly, in the XIX century. in Moscow, St. Petersburg were widely used in street kerosene and gas lamps "Auer caps" made of a rare metal - thorium oxide, which were heated in a flame and glowed brighter than the flame of a lamp.
The knowledge of modern science is sufficient to create such eternal lamps with an autonomous power source. They can be used in underground (mine) works, away from a source of electricity, in explosive areas, etc.

It is possible that such ancient unextinguishable lamps are in Russian museum depositories, places of worship that are unaware of their value.