Tatyana Zaseeva
Summary of direct educational activities "Houses of different peoples"

Dwellings of different peoples.

Abstract compiled by the teacher of GBOU secondary school No. 684 "Bereginya" Moskovsky district of St. Petersburg Zaseeva Tatyana Mikhailovna.

Acquaintance with the environment:

Purpose of the lesson: to cultivate a tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities.

Tasks:

to acquaint children with the fact that people live on our planet different nationalities, and with the fact that these people live in differently;

introduce children to certain types dwellings of different peoples;

introduce children to some of the facts of the history of their people;

introduce children to some of the materials from which you can build dwellings;

show the differences and similarities of people living on different territories;

to cultivate a tolerant attitude towards people living in other conditions.

Class equipment:

illustrations apartment building, wooden hut, tent, needle, wigwam;

illustrations of a city and country dweller, an Indian, an inhabitant of the Far North and a desert;

illustrations of bricks, logs, snow bars;

sticks, scarf;

5 tables with different tablecloths: one tablecloth with depicting streets and intersections, two green tablecloths, one white and one yellow.

Lesson progress:

1. Discuss with children where they are live: live in the city of St. Petersburg, there is a house in the city, there is an apartment in the house in which their family lives. Each apartment has rooms, bathroom, kitchen, bedroom, etc.

2. Show an illustration of an apartment building.

Does this house look like the one you live in? What is similar? What is the difference?

What is in this house?

3. Show an illustration of a wooden house. - Where did you see such houses?

What are their names?

In the huts the people of our country lived when they still did not know how to build large houses with many apartments. Now there are such huts only in villages and dachas, but before, almost all people lived in them.

What is in the hut?

In wooden houses there is always a stove and a chimney.

What are they needed for?

Previously, people did not know how to make batteries. Each hut was heated by a stove. People prepared a lot of firewood so that they could heat the stove all winter.

How is the hut different from the house in which you live now? (among other things, bring the children to the fact that one family lives in a village hut, and many in a city house). - In which house is it more convenient to live now? Why?

4. On our big planet there is different countries. In some you went on vacation to the sea.

What countries do you know?

AT different countries live different people and these people live in a completely different houses. In the south, in Africa, it is very hot, there is a lot of sand, which is called the desert. It rains very rarely in the desert, only a few times a year, and there is no snow at all. And in the wilderness people live in a house called a tent. (Show tent illustration).

What does a tent look like?

The tent is made from a large piece of cloth. It does not protect against cold or rain.

And what can a tent protect people from?

It is very difficult to live in the desert. People have to constantly move from place to place to look for food and water. The tent is convenient because, since it is made of a piece of fabric, when folded, it takes up very little space and is easy to transport. It is also convenient that it can be very quickly collect and"build" again.

5. (show illustration of igloo).

What is this house made of?

Where are such houses built, in the south or in the north? Why?

This house is called an igloo. It is really built by people who live in the north, where almost all year round there is snow. There are no windows in the igloo to keep warm water out, and a hearth is always lit inside to keep warm. And, oddly enough, but in a house made of snow it is really warm enough.

6. In the country of America there are people who are called Indians.

What do you know about Indians?

Indians live in wigwams. (Show an illustration of the wigwam).

What does a wigwam look like?

In the country where people live in such houses, is it warm or cold? Why?

7. Let's put the houses in their places.

Consider tables. Where should the apartment building be located?

How did you guess?

Where are they building wooden houses?

How did you guess?

Where are the tents set up? What does the yellow tablecloth on this table look like?

Where is the igloo built? What does the white tablecloth look like?

Where are wigwams built? What kind of tablecloth is on this table? Why?

8. We have houses, and people live in every house. Let's see what kind of people live in each of these houses.

Consider this woman. What house does she live in?

How did you guess? What is she wearing? What is in her hands?

People living in the village work hard. They grow their own vegetables and fruits, which they eat, put things in order in their gardens.

Consider this man. What house does he live in?

How did you guess? What is he wearing?

What is the Indian wearing?

Now I will tell you why he is wearing feathers. The Indians fought a lot. Those Indians who performed feats were given a feather of the most noble and strong bird - an eagle. We give medals for feats (show an illustration, and feathers for the Indians.

This Indian accomplished many feats? How did you guess?

(Show illustration of inhabitants of the Far North).

Where do these people live?

How did you guess? What are these people wearing?

What do they have in their hands?

There is a lot of snow and people in the North, but very little food. People in the North catch a lot of fish because sometimes it's the only thing they can eat.

(Show picture of African).

Where does this person live?

How did you guess? What is he wearing?

If it's hot in there, why did he cover his face and body almost completely?

9. What can houses be built from?

(Show brick illustration).

What's this?

What kind of house is built of brick? What is it called? (brick).

(Show illustration of logs).

What's this? What kind of house is built from logs? What is it called (log, wooden).

(Show an illustration of snow bars).

What's this? What kind of house is built from this material? Why from him?

(show sticks).

What kind of house is built from such sticks?

(Show cloth handkerchief).

What kind of house is made of cloth?

What does the fabric protect against?

What is used to strengthen the tent?

10. We have examined many houses today.

What are the names of the houses we saw today?

There are a lot of people on our planet. They all live in different and even in different houses. For some, life is easier, for others it is much more difficult. And we need to help each other so that everyone can live well.

Artistic and applied creation:

Purpose of the lesson: teach children to cut paper with scissors in a straight line.

Tasks:

introduce children to scissors and safety rules when working with them;

teach children to hold scissors correctly and cut paper with them in a straight line;

develop spatial thinking of children;

learn to be careful when working with glue;

consolidate knowledge of names and materials dwellings of various peoples of the world;

cultivate a tolerant attitude towards people of different nationalities.

Class equipment:

illustrations of an apartment building, a wooden hut, a tent, a wigwam, an igloo;

sample of finished work;

paper details for application at home for each child;

scissors and glue for each child.

Lesson progress:

1. We learned that on our planet they live completely different people who build their own houses.

What are these houses called? (Show illustrations).

What are they made of?

Whose houses are these?

What do you know about the inhabitants of the south, the north, about the Indians?

2. Consider this picture (show application sample) .

What do you think, what kind of house will we make today?

How did you guess?

Who lives in this house?

What are these houses made of?

What will we make this house from?

What details does this house have?

What parts of the house are not visible here?

3. Today we need scissors.

What do scissors have?

Scissors are a dangerous item.

Why are scissors dangerous?

The scissors are very sharp, so do not touch them with your fingers on the blades. Scissors are taken only by the rings. Do not wave scissors, as you can injure yourself or your neighbor. Scissors should be kept on the table when not in use. directly to work.

Scissors are taken by inserting fingers into the rings. The thumb is inserted into one ring, the index and middle fingers into the other. The thumb ring should be on top. The sheet of paper to be cut is held on weight with the left hand, while making sure that the fingers of the left hand do not fall under the scissors in any case. Scissors open to the maximum with fingers right hand and in the open state are placed on the line, observing the direction given by the line. When the line and the blades of the scissors match, you need to check that the fingers of the left hand do not fall on the line. When everything is prepared, the fingers of the right hand should bring the scissors together. If the line is not cut to the end, you need to spread the scissors again, move them all the way along the line and bring them together again.

4. When all the details are ready, assemble the house on a piece of paper.

What details should your house have? Start gluing the details.

Which side of the paper should be glued?

Where is the part placed to smear it?

What needs to be glued?

How should the pieces be glued?

5. When your house is ready, you need to wash your hands with soap and water after glue. Then you can paint to make the inhabitants of your house more comfortable, the sun, grass, or anything else you want.

Show me your houses. Tell who lives in your house. Which house do you like the most?

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2 slide

The house is the beginning of beginnings, in it we are born and go through our life path. Native dwelling gives a feeling of comfort and warmth, protects from bad weather and troubles. It is through him that the character of the people, its culture and features of life are revealed. Appearance dwellings, Construction Materials and construction method depend on environment, climatic conditions, customs, religion and the occupation of the people who create it. But no matter what housing is built from and no matter how it looks, among all peoples it is considered the center around which the rest of the world is located. Let's get acquainted with the dwellings of different peoples inhabiting our planet.

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Izba is a traditional dwelling of Russians. Previously, the hut was made of pine or spruce logs. The roofs were covered with silver aspen plowshares. A four-wall log house, or cage, was the basis of any wooden building. It consisted of rows of logs stacked on top of each other. The house was without a foundation: repeatedly sorted and well-dried cages were placed directly on the ground, and boulders were rolled to them from the corners. The grooves were laid with moss, so that dampness was not felt in the house. The top had the form of a high gable roof, a tent, an onion, a barrel or a cube - all this is still used in the Volga and northern villages. In the hut, they necessarily arranged a red corner, where there was a goddess and a table (a place of honor for the elders, especially for guests), a woman's corner, or kut, a male corner, or a horse, and a zakut - behind the stove. Furnaces were given a central place in the entire space of the dwelling. A live fire was maintained in it, food was cooked and slept here. Above the entrance, under the ceiling, between two adjacent walls and the stove, a floor was laid. They slept on them, kept household utensils.

4 slide

An igloo is an Eskimo dwelling built from blocks of snow, which, due to its porous structure, is a good heat insulator. For the construction of such a house, only the snow is suitable, on which a clear imprint of a person's foot remains. Large knives cut out blocks of different sizes in the thickness of the snow cover and stack them in a spiral. The building is given a domed character, due to which it retains heat in the room. They enter the igloo through a hole in the floor, to which a corridor dug in the snow below the floor level leads. If the snow is shallow, a hole is made in the wall, and a corridor of snow slabs is built in front of it. Thus, cold winds do not penetrate inside the dwelling, heat does not go outside, and the gradual icing of the surface makes the building very durable. Inside the hemispherical igloo, a canopy of reindeer skins is hung, separating the residential part from the snowy walls and ceiling. The Eskimos build an igloo for two or three people in half an hour. Home of the Eskimos of Alaska. Incision.

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Saklya (Georgian sakhli - “house”) is the dwelling of the Caucasian highlanders, which is often built right on the rocks. To protect such a house from the wind, the lee side of the mountain slope is chosen for construction. Saklu is made of stone or clay. Its roof is flat; with a terraced arrangement of buildings on a mountain slope, the roof of the lower house can serve as a courtyard for the upper one. In each sakla, one or two small windows and one or two doors are cut. Inside the rooms they arrange a small fireplace with a clay chimney. Outside the house, near the doors, there is a kind of gallery with fireplaces, floors covered with clay and covered with carpets. Here, in the summer, women prepare food.

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Stilt houses are built in hot, damp places. Such houses are found in Africa, Indonesia, Oceania. Two- or three-meter piles, on which houses are erected, provide the room with coolness and dryness even during the rainy season or during a storm. The walls are made from woven bamboo mats. As a rule, there are no windows; light penetrates through the cracks in the walls or through the door. The roof is covered with palm branches. Steps decorated with carvings usually lead to the interior. The doorways are decorated in the same way.

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Wigwams are built by North American Indians. Long poles are stuck into the ground, the tops of which are tied. The structure is covered from above with branches, tree bark, and reeds. And if the skin of a bison or a deer is pulled over the frame, then the dwelling is called a tipi. A smoke hole is left at the top of the cone, covered with two special blades. There are also domed wigwams, when tree trunks dug into the ground are bent into a vault. The skeleton is also covered with branches, bark, mats.

8 slide

Dwellings on trees in Indonesia are built like watchtowers - at six or seven meters above the ground. The building is erected on a site prepared in advance tied to the branches of poles. The structure balancing on the branches cannot be overloaded, but it must support the large gable roof that crowns the structure. Such a house is arranged with two floors: the lower one, made of sago bark, on which there is a hearth for cooking, and the upper floor, made of palm boards, on which they sleep. In order to ensure the safety of residents, such houses are built on trees growing near the reservoir. They get into the hut along long stairs connected from poles.

9 slide

Felij - a tent that serves as a home for the Bedouins - representatives of the nomadic Tuareg people (uninhabited areas of the Sahara desert). The tent consists of a blanket woven from camel or goat hair, and poles supporting the structure. Such a dwelling successfully resists the effects of drying winds and sand. Even such winds as burning Samoum or Sirocco are not afraid of nomads who have taken refuge in tents. Each dwelling is divided into parts. Its left half is intended for women and is separated by a canopy. The wealth of a Bedouin is judged by the number of poles in the tent, which sometimes reaches eighteen.

10 slide

From time immemorial, a Japanese house in the Land of the Rising Sun has been built from three main materials: bamboo, mats and paper. Such a dwelling is most secure during the frequent earthquakes in Japan. The walls do not serve as a support, so they can be moved apart or even removed, they also serve as a window (shoji). In the warm season, the walls are a lattice structure, pasted over with translucent paper that transmits light. And in the cold season they are covered with wooden panels. The inner walls (fushima) are also movable frame-like shields covered with paper or silk and help to divide a large room into several small rooms. An obligatory element of the interior is a small niche (tokonoma), where there is a scroll with poems or paintings and ikebana. The floor is covered with mats (tatami), on which they walk without shoes. A tiled or thatched roof has large canopies that protect the paper walls of the house from rain and the scorching sun.

11 slide

Yurts are a special type of dwelling used by nomadic peoples (Mongols, Kazakhs, Kalmyks, Buryats, Kirghiz). Round, without corners and straight walls, a portable structure, perfectly adapted to the way of life of these peoples. The yurt protects from the steppe climate - strong winds and temperature changes. The wooden frame is assembled within a few hours, it is convenient to transport it. In summer, the yurt is placed directly on the ground, and in winter, on a wooden platform. Having chosen a place for parking, first of all they put stones under the future hearth, and then they set up the yurt according to the routine - the entrance to the south (for some peoples - to the east). The skeleton is covered with felt from the outside, and a door is made from it. Felt coverings keep the hearth warm in summer and keep it warm in winter. From above, the yurt is tied up with belts or ropes, and some peoples - with colorful belts. The floor is covered with animal skins, and the walls inside are covered with cloth. Light enters through the smoke hole at the top. Since there are no windows in the dwelling, in order to find out what is happening outside the house, you need to carefully listen to the sounds outside.

12 slide

Yaranga is the home of the Chukchi. The camps of the nomadic Chukchi numbered up to 10 yarangas and were stretched from west to east. The first from the west was the yaranga of the head of the camp. Yaranga - a tent in the form of a truncated cone with a height in the center of 3.5 to 4.7 meters and a diameter of 5.7 to 7-8 meters. The wooden frame was covered with reindeer skins, usually sewn into two panels with belts, the ends of the belts in the lower part were tied to sleds or heavy stones for immobility. The hearth was located in the center of the yaranga, under the smoke hole. Opposite the entrance, at the rear wall of the yaranga, a sleeping room (canopy) was made of skins in the form of a parallelepiped. The average size of the canopy is 1.5 meters high, 2.5 meters wide and about 4 meters long. The floor was covered with mats, on top of them - with thick skins. The bed headboard - two oblong bags stuffed with scraps of skins - was located at the exit. In winter, during periods of frequent migrations, the canopy was made from the thickest skins with fur inside. They covered themselves with a blanket sewn from several deer skins. To illuminate their dwellings, the coastal Chukchi used whale and seal fat, while the tundra Chukchi used fat melted from crushed deer bones that burned odorless and soot in stone oil lamps. Behind the canopy, at the back wall of the tent, things were kept; at the side, on both sides of the hearth, - products.

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"Dwellings of the peoples of the world"

(66 “residential properties” selected by us, from “abylaisha” to “yaranga”)

Wall newspapers of the charitable educational project "Briefly and clearly about the most interesting" (site site) are intended for schoolchildren, parents and teachers of St. Petersburg. They are delivered free of charge to most educational institutions, as well as to a number of hospitals, orphanages and other institutions in the city. The publications of the project do not contain any advertising (only logos of the founders), politically and religiously neutral, written in easy language, well illustrated. They are conceived as an information "slowdown" of students, the awakening of cognitive activity and the desire to read. Authors and publishers, without claiming to be academically complete in the presentation of the material, publish Interesting Facts, illustrations, interviews with famous figures of science and culture and hope to thereby increase the interest of schoolchildren in the educational process.

Dear friends! Our regular readers have noticed that this is not the first time we are presenting an issue related to real estate in one way or another. Recently, we discussed the very first residential buildings of the Stone Age, and also took a closer look at the "real estate" of the Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons (issue). We talked about the dwellings of peoples who have long lived on the lands from Lake Onega to the shores of the Gulf of Finland (and these are Veps, Vods, Izhors, Ingermanland Finns, Tikhvin Karelians and Russians), we talked in the series “Indigenous Peoples of the Leningrad Region” (, and issues). The most incredible and peculiar modern buildings we covered in the issue. More than once we also wrote about holidays related to the topic: Realtor's Day in Russia (February 8); Builder's Day in Russia (second Sunday in August); World Architecture Day and World Dwelling Day (first Monday in October). This wall newspaper is a short "wall encyclopedia" of traditional dwellings of peoples from all over the world. The 66 "residential properties" we have chosen are arranged alphabetically: from "abylaisha" to "yaranga".

Abylaisha

Abylaisha is a camping yurt among the Kazakhs. Its frame consists of many poles, which are attached from above to a wooden ring - a chimney. The whole structure is covered with felt. In the past, such dwellings were used in the military campaigns of the Kazakh Khan Abylai, hence the name.

ail

Ail (“wooden yurt”) is the traditional dwelling of the Telengits, the people of the Southern Altai. Timbered hexagonal structure with an earthen floor and a high roof covered with birch bark or larch bark. There is a hearth in the middle of the earthen floor.

Arish

Arish is the summer home of the Arab population of the Persian Gulf coast, woven from palm leaf stalks. A kind of fabric pipe is installed on the roof, which provides ventilation in the house in extremely hot climates.

Balagan

Balagan is the winter dwelling of the Yakuts. Inclined walls made of thin poles coated with clay were strengthened on a log frame. The low sloping roof was covered with bark and earth. Pieces of ice were inserted into small windows. The entrance is oriented to the east and covered with a canopy. On the western side, a cattle shed was attached to the booth.

Barasti

Barasti - in the Arabian Peninsula, the common name for huts woven from leaves date palm. At night, the leaves absorb excess dampness, and during the day they gradually dry out, moistening the hot air.

Barabora

Barabora is a capacious semi-dugout of the Aleuts, the indigenous population of the Aleutian Islands. The frame was made of whale bones and snags thrown ashore. The roof was insulated with grass, turf and skins. A hole was left in the roof for entry and lighting, from where they descended inside along a log with steps carved into it. Barabors were built on the hills near the coast, so that it was convenient to observe sea animals and the approach of enemies.

Bordei

Bordei is a traditional semi-dugout in Romania and Moldova, covered with a thick layer of straw or reed. Such a dwelling saved from significant temperature fluctuations during the day, as well as from strong winds. There was a hearth on the clay floor, but the bordey was heated in black: the smoke came out through a small door. This is one of the oldest types of housing in this part of Europe.

Bahareke

Bajareque is the hut of the Indians of Guatemala. The walls are made of poles and branches covered with clay. The roof is made of dry grass or straw, the floor is made of rammed soil. Bahareke are resistant to strong earthquakes that occur in Central America.

Burama

Burama is the temporary dwelling of the Bashkirs. The walls were made of logs and branches and had no windows. Gable roof covered with bark. The earthen floor was covered with grass, branches and leaves. Inside, bunks were built from boards and a hearth with a wide chimney.

Valcaran

Valkaran (“house of whale jaws” in Chukchi) is a dwelling near the peoples of the coast of the Bering Sea (Eskimos, Aleuts and Chukchi). Semi-dugout with a frame made of large whale bones, covered with earth and turf. It had two entrances: summer - through a hole in the roof, winter - through a long semi-underground corridor.

Vardo

Vardo is a gypsy wagon, a real one-room mobile home. It has a door and windows, an oven for cooking and heating, a bed, boxes for things. Behind, under the tailgate, there is a box for storing kitchen utensils. Below, between the wheels - luggage, removable steps and even a chicken coop! The whole wagon is light enough that one horse could carry it. Vardo got off with skillful carvings and painted bright colors. The heyday of vardo came at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century.

Vezha

Vezha is an ancient winter dwelling of the Saami, the indigenous Finno-Ugric people of Northern Europe. The vezha was made of logs in the form of a pyramid with a smoke hole at the top. The skeleton of the vezha was covered with deer skins, and bark, brushwood and turf were laid on top and pressed down with birch poles for strength. A stone hearth was arranged in the center of the dwelling. The floor was covered with deer skins. Nearby they put "nili" - a shed on poles. By the beginning of the 20th century, many Saami living in Russia had already built huts for themselves and called them the Russian word "house".

wigwam

Wigwam - the common name of the dwelling of the forest Indians North America. Most often it is a dome-shaped hut with a hole for smoke to escape. The frame of the wigwam was made from curved thin trunks and covered with bark, reed mats, skins or pieces of cloth. Outside, the coating was additionally pressed with poles. Teepees can be either round in plan or elongated and have several smoke holes (such designs are called "long houses"). Tepees are often erroneously called the cone-shaped dwellings of the Indians of the Great Plains - "teepee" (remember, for example, " folk art"Ball from the cartoon "Winter in Prostokvashino").

Wikipedia

Wikiap is the dwelling of the Apaches and some other Indian tribes of the Southwestern United States and California. A small, crude hut covered with twigs, shrubs, thatch, or mats, often with additional pieces of cloth and blankets thrown over the top. A kind of wigwam.

sod house

The sod house has been a traditional building in Iceland since the days of the Vikings. Its design was determined by the harsh climate and the scarcity of wood. Large flat stones were laid out on the site of the future house. A wooden frame was placed on them, which was covered with turf in several layers. In one half of such a house they lived, in the other they kept livestock.

diaolou

Diaolou is a fortified high-rise building in Guangdong province in southern China. The first diaolou were built during the Ming Dynasty, when gangs of robbers were operating in southern China. In more recent and relatively safe times such houses-fortresses were built, simply following the tradition.

Dugout

The dugout is one of the oldest and widespread types of insulated housing. In a number of countries, peasants lived mainly in dugouts until the late Middle Ages. A hole dug in the ground was covered with poles or logs, which were covered with earth. There was a hearth inside, and bunk beds along the walls.

igloo

An igloo is a domed Eskimo hut made of blocks of dense snow. The floor and sometimes the walls were covered with skins. To enter, a tunnel was dug in the snow. If the snow was shallow, the entrance was arranged in the wall, to which an additional corridor of snow blocks was completed. Light enters the room directly through the snowy walls, although they also made windows covered with seal guts or ice floes. Often several igloos were connected by long snowy corridors.

Izba

Hut - log house in the forest zone of Russia. Until the 10th century, the hut looked like a semi-dugout, completed with several rows of logs. There was no door, the entrance was covered with logs and canopy. In the depths of the hut there was a hearth made of stones. The hut was heated in black. People slept on bedding on an earthen floor in the same room as the cattle. Over the centuries, the hut acquired a stove, a hole on the roof for smoke to escape, and then a chimney. Holes appeared in the walls - windows that were covered with mica plates or a bull's bladder. Over time, they began to block the hut into two parts: the upper room and the canopy. This is how the “five-wall” hut appeared.

North Russian hut

The hut in the Russian North was built on two floors. The upper floor is residential, the lower (“basement”) is economic. Servants, children, yard workers lived in the basement, there were also rooms for livestock and storage of supplies. The basement was built with blank walls, without windows and doors. An external staircase led directly to the second floor. This saved us from being covered with snow: in the North there are snowdrifts of several meters! A covered courtyard was attached to such a hut. Long cold winters forced to combine residential and outbuildings into a single whole.

Ikukwane

Ikukwane is a large domed thatched house of the Zulus (South Africa). It was built from long thin rods, tall grass, reeds. All this was intertwined and strengthened with ropes. The entrance to the hut was closed with a special shield. Travelers find that Ikukwane fits perfectly into the surrounding landscape.

Boar

Cabanya is a small hut of the indigenous population of Ecuador (a state in the north-west of South America). Its frame is woven from a vine, partially covered with clay and covered with straw. This name was also given to gazebos for recreation and technical needs, installed in resorts near beaches and pools.

Kava

Kava is a gable hut of the Orochi, an indigenous people of the Khabarovsk Territory (Russian Far East). The roof and side walls were covered with spruce bark, the smoke hole was covered with a special tire in bad weather. The entrance to the dwelling always turned to the river. The place for the hearth was covered with pebbles and fenced with wooden blocks, which were coated with clay from the inside. Wooden bunks were built along the walls.

Kazhim

Kazhim is a large community house of the Eskimos, designed for several dozen people and many years of service. In the place chosen for the house, they dug a rectangular hole, at the corners of which high thick logs were installed (the Eskimos do not have local wood, so the trees thrown ashore by the surf were used). Further, walls and a roof were erected in the form of a pyramid - from logs or whale bones. A frame covered with a transparent bubble was inserted into the hole left in the middle. The entire building was covered with earth. The roof was supported by pillars, as well as bench-beds installed along the walls in several tiers. The floor was covered with boards and mats. A narrow underground corridor was dug to enter.

Cajun

Kazhun is a stone structure traditional for Istria (a peninsula in the Adriatic Sea, in the northern part of Croatia). Cajun cylindrical shape with a conical roof. No windows. The construction was carried out using the dry laying method (without the use of a binding solution). Initially served as a dwelling, but later began to play the role of an outbuilding.

Karamo

Karamo is a dugout of the Selkups, hunters and fishermen of the north of Western Siberia. A hole was dug at the steep bank of the river, four pillars were placed at the corners and log walls were made. The roof, also made of logs, was covered with earth. An entrance was dug from the side of the water and disguised by coastal vegetation. To prevent the dugout from flooding, the floor was made gradually rising from the entrance. It was possible to get into the dwelling only by boat, and the boat was also dragged inside. Because of such peculiar houses, the Selkups were called "earth people".

Klochan

Klochan is a domed stone hut common in the southwest of Ireland. Very thick, up to one and a half meters, the walls were laid out "dry", without a binder solution. Narrow gaps were left - windows, an entrance and a chimney. Such uncomplicated huts were built for themselves by monks leading an ascetic lifestyle, so one should not expect much comfort inside.

Kolyba

Kolyba is a summer residence of shepherds and lumberjacks, common in the mountainous regions of the Carpathians. This is a log cabin without windows with a gable roof, covered with shingles (flat chips). Along the walls there are wooden benches and shelves for things, the floor is earthen. In the middle is a hearth, the smoke comes out through a hole in the roof.

Konak

Konak is a two- or three-storey stone house found in Turkey, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania. The building, in plan resembling the letter "G", is covered with a massive tiled roof, creating a deep shadow. Each bedroom has a covered projecting balcony and a steam room. A large number of a variety of premises satisfies all the needs of the owners, so there is no need for buildings in the yard.

Kuvaksa

Kuvaksa is a portable dwelling of the Saami during the spring-summer migrations. It has a cone-shaped frame of several poles connected by the tops, on which a cover made of deer skins, birch bark or canvas was pulled. A hearth was set up in the center. Kuvaksa is a type of plague, and also resembles a tipi North American Indians, but somewhat more squat.

Kula

Kula is a fortified stone tower of two or three floors with strong walls and small loophole windows. Kulas can be found in the mountainous regions of Albania. The tradition of building such houses-fortresses is very ancient and also exists in the Caucasus, Sardinia, Corsica and Ireland.

Kuren

Kuren (from the word "smoke", which means "to smoke") - the dwelling of the Cossacks, "free troops" of the Russian kingdom in the lower reaches of the Dnieper, Don, Yaik, Volga. The first Cossack settlements arose in floodplains (river reed thickets). The houses stood on piles, the walls were made of wattle, filled with earth and plastered with clay, the roof was reed with a hole for smoke to escape. The features of these first Cossack dwellings can be traced in modern kurens.

Lepa-lepa

Lepa-lepa is the boat-house of the Bajao, the people of Southeast Asia. The Bajao, "sea gypsies," as they are called, spend their entire lives in boats in the Pacific's Coral Triangle, between Borneo, the Philippines, and the Solomon Islands. In one part of the boat they prepare food and store gear, and in the other they sleep. They go on land only to sell fish, buy rice, water and fishing gear, and bury the dead.

Mázanka

Mázanka - practical country house steppe and forest-steppe Ukraine. The hut got its name according to the old construction technology: a frame made of branches, insulated with a reed layer, was abundantly coated with clay mixed with straw. The walls were regularly whitewashed inside and out, which gave the house an elegant look. The four-pitched thatched roof had large overhangs so that the walls would not get wet in the rain.

Minka

Minka is the traditional dwelling of Japanese peasants, artisans and merchants. Minka was built from readily available materials: bamboo, clay, grass and straw. Instead of internal walls sliding partitions or screens were used. This allowed the inhabitants of the house to change the location of the rooms at their discretion. The roofs were made very high so that the snow and rain immediately rolled off, and the straw did not have time to get wet.

Odag

Odag is the wedding hut of the Shors, a people living in the southeastern part of Western Siberia. Nine thin young birches with foliage were tied from above and covered with birch bark. The groom kindled a fire inside the hut with a flint and flint. The young remained in the odage for three days, after which they moved to a permanent home.

Pallazo

Pallazo is a type of dwelling in Galicia (northwest of the Iberian Peninsula). A stone wall was laid out in a circle with a diameter of 10-20 meters, leaving openings for front door and small windows. over on wooden frame put a cone-shaped roof of straw. Sometimes two rooms were arranged in large pallazos: one for living, the second for livestock. Pallazos were used as housing in Galicia until the 1970s.

Palheiro

Palheiro is a traditional farmer's house in the village of Santana in the east of Madeira. This is a small stone building with a sloping thatched roof to the ground. The houses are painted white, red and blue. Palera began to build the first colonizers of the island.

Cave

The cave is probably the most ancient natural refuge of man. In soft rocks (limestone, loess, tuff), people have long cut down artificial caves, where they equipped comfortable dwellings, sometimes entire cave cities. So, in the cave city of Eski-Kermen in the Crimea (pictured), rooms carved into the rock have hearths, chimneys, “beds”, niches for dishes and other things, water tanks, windows and doorways with traces of loops.

Kitchen

Povarnya - the summer home of Kamchadals, the people of the Kamchatka Territory, Magadan region and Chukotka. To protect themselves from water level drops, dwellings (like a plague) were built on high piles. Logs thrown ashore by the sea were used. The hearth was placed on a pile of pebbles. The smoke escaped through a hole in the middle of the sharp roof. Under the roof, multi-tiered poles were made for drying fish. Povarni can still be seen on the shores of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.

pueblo

Pueblo - the ancient settlements of the Pueblo Indians, a group of Indian peoples of the Southwest of the modern USA. A closed structure built of sandstone or raw brick, in the form of a fortress. The living quarters had ledges of several floors - so that the roof of the lower floor was a courtyard for the upper one. They climbed to the upper floors by ladders through holes in the roofs. In some pueblos, for example, in Taos Pueblo (a settlement of a thousand years ago), the Indians still live.

pueblito

Pueblito is a small fortified house in the northwest of the US state of New Mexico. 300 years ago they were built, as expected, by the Navajo and Pueblo tribes, who were defending themselves from the Spaniards, as well as from the Ute and Comanche tribes. The walls are made of boulders and cobblestones and held together with clay. The interiors are also covered with clay plaster. The ceilings are made of pine or juniper beams, over which rods are laid. The pueblitos were located in high places within sight of each other to allow long-distance communication.

Riga

Riga (“residential riga”) is a log house of Estonian peasants with a high thatched or thatched roof. Hay was lived and dried in the central room, heated in black. In the adjacent room (it was called "threshing floor") they threshed and winnowed grain, stored tools and hay, and kept livestock in winter. There were still unheated rooms ("chambers"), which were used as pantries, and in warm weather as living quarters.

Rondavel

Rondavel - round house Bantu peoples (southern Africa). The walls were made of stone. The cementing composition consisted of sand, earth and manure. The roof was poles made of branches, to which bundles of reeds were tied with grassy ropes.

Saklya

Sáklya is the home of the inhabitants of the mountainous areas of the Caucasus and Crimea. Usually it is a house made of stone, clay or raw brick with a flat roof and narrow windows that look like loopholes. If the sakli were located one below the other on the mountainside, the roof of the lower house could easily serve as a courtyard for the upper one. The beams of the frame were made protruding to equip cozy canopies. However, any small hut with a thatched roof can be called a sakley here.

Seneca

Senek is a “log yurt” of the Shors, the people of the southeastern part of Western Siberia. The gable roof was covered with birch bark, which was fastened on top with half-logs. The hearth was in the form of a clay pit opposite the front door. A wooden hook with a bowler hat was hung over the hearth on a transverse pole. Smoke escaped through a hole in the roof.

Tipi

Tipi is a portable dwelling of the nomadic Indians of the Great Plains of America. Tipi has the shape of a cone up to eight meters high. The frame is assembled from poles (pine - in the northern and central plains and from juniper - in the south). The tire is sewn from bison skin or canvas. Leave a smoke hole at the top. Two smoke valves regulate the smoke draft of the hearth with the help of special poles. In case of strong wind, the tipi is tied to a special peg with a belt. Teepee should not be confused with wigwam.

Tokul

Tokul is a round thatched hut of the inhabitants of Sudan (East Africa). The load-bearing parts of the walls and the conical roof are made from long trunks of mimosa. Then hoops of flexible branches are put on them and covered with straw.

Tulow

Tulou is a fortress house in the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong (China). A foundation was laid out of stones in a circle or square (which made it difficult for the enemies to dig during the siege) and the lower part of the wall was built about two meters thick. Above, the wall was completed from a mixture of clay, sand and lime, which hardened in the sun. Narrow openings for loopholes were left on the upper floors. Inside the fortress there were living quarters, a well, large containers for food. In one tulou, 500 people representing one clan could live.

Trullo

Trullo is an original house with a conical roof in the Italian region of Apulia. Trullo walls are very thick, so it is cool in hot weather and not so cold in winter. The trullo is two-tiered, they climbed to the second floor ladder. Trulli often had several cone roofs, each with a separate room.

Tueji

Tueji is the summer home of the Udege, Orochi and Nanais, the indigenous peoples of the Far East. A gable roof covered with birch bark or cedar bark was installed over the dug pit. The sides were covered with earth. Inside, the tueji is divided into three parts: female, male and central, in which the hearth was located. Above the hearth, a platform of thin poles was installed for drying and smoking fish and meat, and a cauldron was hung for cooking.

Urasá

Urasá - the summer dwelling of the Yakuts, a cone-shaped hut made of poles, covered with birch bark. Long, poles, placed in a circle, were fastened from above with a wooden hoop. From the inside, the frame was stained reddish-brown with a decoction of alder bark. The door was made in the form of a birch bark curtain, decorated with folk patterns. For strength, the birch bark was boiled in water, then scraped with a knife upper layer and sewn with a thin hair cord into strips. Inside, bunks were built along the walls. There was a hearth in the middle on the earthen floor.

Fale

Fale is a hut of the inhabitants of the island nation of Samóa (South Pacific Ocean). A gable roof made of coconut palm leaves is mounted on wooden poles arranged in a circle or oval. Distinctive feature fale - the absence of walls. The openings between the pillars, if necessary, are hung with mats. The wooden elements of the structure are connected with ropes woven from the threads of coconut husks.

Fanza

Fanza is a type of rural dwelling in Northeast China and the Russian Far East among indigenous peoples. Rectangular building on a frame of pillars supporting a gable thatched roof. The walls were made of straw mixed with clay. Fanza had an ingenious space heating system. A chimney ran from the earthen hearth along the entire wall at floor level. The smoke, before going out into a long chimney built outside the fanza, heated the wide bunks. Hot coals from the hearth were poured onto a special elevation and used to heat water and dry clothes.

felij

Felij - the tent of the Bedouins, Arab nomads. The frame of long poles intertwined with each other is covered with a cloth woven from camel, goat or sheep wool. This fabric is so dense that it does not let rain through. During the day, the awning is raised so that the dwelling is ventilated, and at night or in strong winds, they are lowered. The felij is divided into male and female halves by a patterned fabric curtain. Each half has its own hearth. The floor is covered with mats.

Hanok

Hanok is a traditional Korean house with clay walls and a thatched or tiled roof. Its peculiarity is the heating system: pipes are laid under the floor, through which hot air from the hearth spreads throughout the house. The ideal place for hanok is this: behind the house there is a hill, and in front of the house a stream flows.

Hut

Khata is the traditional home of Ukrainians, Belarusians, southern Russians and part of the Poles. The roof, unlike the Russian hut, was made four-pitched: thatched or reed. The walls were built from half-logs coated with a mixture of clay, horse manure and straw, and whitened - both outside and inside. Shutters were made on the windows. Around the house there was a mound (a wide shop filled with clay), protecting the lower part of the wall from getting wet. The hut was divided into two parts: residential and household, separated by a passage.

Hogan

Hogan is an ancient home of the Navajo Indians, one of the largest Indian peoples in North America. A frame of poles placed at an angle of 45° to the ground was intertwined with branches and thickly coated with clay. Often, a "hallway" was attached to this simple design. The entrance was covered with a blanket. After the first railroad passed through the territory of the Navajo, the design of the hogan changed: the Indians found it very convenient to build their houses from sleepers.

Chum

Chum is the common name for a conical hut made of poles covered with birch bark, felt or reindeer skins. This form of dwelling is common throughout Siberia - from the Ural Mountains to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, among the Finno-Ugric, Turkic and Mongolian peoples.

Shabono

Shabono is a collective dwelling of the Yanomámo Indians, lost in the Amazon rainforest on the border of Venezuela and Brazil. A large family (from 50 to 400 people) chooses a suitable clearing in the depths of the jungle and encloses it with pillars, to which a long roof of leaves is attached. Inside such a kind of hedge, there is an open space for chores and rituals.

hut

Shelash is the common name for the simplest shelter from the weather from any available materials: sticks, branches, grass, etc. It was probably the first man-made shelter of an ancient person. In any case, some animals, in particular, great apes, create something similar.

Chalet

Chale ("shepherd's hut") - a small rural house in the "Swiss style" in the Alps. One of the signs of a chalet is strongly protruding cornice overhangs. The walls are wooden, their lower part can be plastered or lined with stone.

marquee

A tent is a general name for a temporary light building made of fabric, leather or skins stretched on stakes and ropes. Since ancient times, tents have been used by eastern nomadic peoples. The tent (under various names) is often mentioned in the Bible.

Yurt

Yurt is the common name for a portable frame dwelling with felt covering among Turkic and Mongolian nomads. A classic yurt is easily assembled and disassembled by one family within a few hours. It is transported on a camel or horse, its felt cover protects well from temperature changes, does not let rain or wind through. Dwellings of this type are so ancient that they are recognized even in rock paintings. Yurts in a number of areas are successfully used today.

Yaodong

Yaodong is the home-cave of the Loess Plateau in the northern provinces of China. Loess is a soft, easy-to-work rock. Local residents discovered this long ago and from time immemorial dug out their dwellings right in the hillside. Inside such a house is comfortable in any weather.

Yaranga

Yaranga is a portable dwelling of some peoples of the north-east of Siberia: Chukchi, Koryaks, Evens, Yukaghirs. First, tripods of poles are set in a circle and fixed with stones. The inclined poles of the side wall are tied to the tripods. The frame of the dome is attached from above. The whole structure is covered with deer or walrus skins. Two or three poles are placed in the middle in order to support the ceiling. Yaranga is divided by canopies into several rooms. Sometimes a small “house” covered with skins is placed inside the yaranga.

We thank the Department of Education of the Administration of the Kirovsky District of St. Petersburg and everyone who selflessly helps in distributing our wall newspapers. Our sincere thanks to the wonderful photographers who kindly allowed us to use their photos in this issue. These are Mikhail Krasikov, Evgeny Golomolzin and Sergey Sharov. Many thanks to Lyudmila Semyonovna Grek for prompt consultations. Please send your comments and suggestions to: [email protected]

Dear friends, thank you for being with us!

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Like all living creatures with the ability to move, a person needs a temporary or permanent shelter or dwelling for sleep, rest, protection from the weather and attack by animals or other people. Therefore, concerns about housing, along with concerns about food and clothing, should, first of all, excite the mind of primitive man. In the essays on primitive culture, we said that already in the Stone Age, man used not only caves, hollows of trees, clefts of rocks, etc. natural shelters, but also developed various types of buildings that we can see among modern peoples at all levels of culture. From the time when man acquired the ability to extract metals, his building activity quickly advanced, facilitating and providing other cultural achievements.

“When one thinks of the nests of birds, the dams of beavers, the platforms in the trees made by monkeys, it is hardly possible to suppose that man was ever incapable of making a shelter of one kind or another” (E. B. Taylor, “Anthropology "). If he did not always suit him, it was because, moving from place to place, he could find a cave, hollow or other natural shelter. South African Bushmen also live in mountain caves and make temporary huts for themselves. Unlike animals, capable of only one type of building, man creates, depending on local conditions, buildings of various types and gradually improves them.

Since the ancestral home of man was in the tropical region, the first human building appeared there. It was not even a hut, but a canopy or screen of two stakes stuck into the ground with a transverse crossbar, against which tree branches and huge leaves of tropical palm trees leaned on the windward side. On the leeward side of the shed, a fire burns, on which food is cooked, and near which the family warms itself in cold weather. Such dwellings are made by natives of central Brazil and Australians walking completely naked, and sometimes by modern hunters in the northern forests. The next step in the arrangement of the dwelling is a round hut made of branches with dense foliage stuck into the ground, connected or intertwined with tops, forming a kind of roof over the head. Our round garden gazebos, covered with branches, are very similar to such a hut of savages.

Some of the Brazilian Indians put more art into the work, as they make a frame from the tops of young trees tied with the tops or poles stuck in the ground, which is then covered with large palm leaves. The same huts are arranged by the Australians in the event of a long stay, covering the skeleton of branches with bark, leaves, grass, sometimes they even lay sod or cover the hut with clay from the outside.

Thus, the invention and construction of a round hut is a simple matter and accessible to the most backward peoples. If wandering hunters carry with them poles and a cover of a hut, then it turns into a tent, which more cultured peoples cover with skins, felt or canvas.

The round hut is so cramped that you only have to lie or squat in it. An important improvement was the setting of a hut on pillars or walls of intertwined branches and earth, that is, the construction of round huts, which in ancient times were in Europe, are now found in Africa and other parts of the world. To increase the capacity of the round hut, a hole was dug inside it. This digging of the inner pit gave the idea to build the walls of the hut from the earth, and it turned into a dugout with a conical flat roof made of tree trunks, brushwood, turf and even stones that were superimposed on top to protect against gusts of wind.

A major step in the art of building was the replacement of round huts with square ones. wooden houses, whose walls were much stronger than earthen walls, easily washed away by rains. But solid wooden walls from horizontally laid logs did not appear immediately and not everywhere; their construction became possible only with the availability of metal axes and saws. For a long time their walls were made of vertical pillars, the gaps between which were filled with turf or intertwined rods, sometimes smeared with clay. In order to protect against people, animals and river floods, buildings already familiar to readers on pillars or on piles, which are now found on the islands of the Malay Archipelago and in many other places, began to appear.

Further, the improvement of human habitation were doors and windows. The door remains for a long time the only opening of the primitive dwelling; later, light openings or windows appear, in which even now in many places bull bladder, mica, even ice, etc., are used instead of glass, and sometimes they are only shut up at night or in bad weather. A very important improvement was the introduction of a hearth or stove inside the house, since the hearth not only allows you to maintain the desired temperature in the home, but also dries and ventilates, making the home more hygienic.

Types of dwellings of cultural peoples: 1) the house of an ancient German; 2) housing of the Franks; 3) Japanese house; 4) Egyptian house; 5) Etruscan house; 6) an ancient Greek house; 7) ancient Roman house; 8) an old French house; 9) Arab house; 10) English mansion.

Types wooden buildings different times and peoples are extremely diverse. Buildings made of clay and stone are no less diverse and even more widespread. A wooden hut or hut is easier to build than a stone one, and probably stone architecture arose from a simpler wooden one. The rafters, beams and columns of stone buildings are undoubtedly copied from the corresponding wooden forms, but, of course, on this basis one cannot deny the independent development of stone architecture and explain everything in it by imitation.

Primitive man used natural caves for habitation, and then began to arrange artificial caves for himself where soft rocks lay. In southern Palestine, entire ancient cave cities have been preserved, carved into the thickness of the rocks.

Artificial cave dwellings still serve as a shelter for people in China, North Africa and other places. But such dwellings have a limited area of ​​​​distribution and appear where a person already possessed rather high technology.

Probably the first stone dwelling was the same as found among the Australians and in some other places. Australians build the walls of their huts from stones picked up on the ground, not connected in any way. Because you can't find it everywhere suitable material from unworked stones in the form of slabs of layered rocks, then a person began to fasten the stones with clay. Round huts made of unhewn stones, fastened with clay, are still found in northern Syria. Such huts made of unworked stones, as well as molded from clay, river silt and mud, along with reeds, were the beginning of all subsequent stone buildings.

Over time, the stones began to be hewn so that they could be fitted one to the other. A very important and major step in the construction business was the trimming of stones in the form of rectangular stone slabs, which were laid in regular rows. Such trimming of stone blocks reached its highest perfection in ancient Egypt. Cement for fastening stone slabs was not used for a long time, and was not needed, these slabs adhered to each other so well. Cement, however, has long been known and ancient world. The Romans used not only ordinary cement made from lime and sand, but also water-resistant cement, to which volcanic ash was added.

In countries where there was little stone and a dry climate, buildings made of clay or mud mixed with straw are very common, as they are cheaper and even better than wooden ones. Sun-dried bricks made of greasy clay mixed with straw have been known in the East since ancient times. Buildings made of such bricks are now widespread in the dry regions of the Old World and in Mexico. Fired bricks and tiles, necessary for countries with rainy climates, were a later invention, perfected by the ancient Romans.

Stone buildings were originally covered with reeds, straw, wood, the skeleton of the roof and is now made of wood, wooden beams only in our time began to replace the metal. But for a long time people thought of constructing first false and then true vaults. In a false vault, stone slabs or bricks are laid in the form of two stairs until the tops of these stairs converge so much that they can be covered with one brick; such false vaults are made by children from wooden cubes. The similarity of false arches can be seen in the Egyptian pyramids in the ruins of the buildings of Central America and in the temples of India. The time and place of the invention of the true code is unknown; the ancient Greeks did not use it. It was put into use and brought to perfection by the Romans: from Roman bridges, domes and halls with vaults, all the later buildings of this kind originated. A person's dwelling serves as an addition to clothing and, like clothing, depends on the climate and geographical environment. Therefore, in various regions of the globe, we find the predominance of various types of dwellings.

In areas with a hot and damp climate, inhabited by naked, half-naked or lightly dressed people, the dwelling is intended not so much for warmth, it plays the role of protection from tropical rains. Therefore, light huts or huts covered with straw, bamboo, reeds and palm leaves serve as dwellings here. In hot and dry areas of deserts and semi-deserts, the settled population lives in earthen houses with a flat earthen roof, well protected from the heat of the sun, while nomads in Africa and Arabia live in tents or tents.

In more or less humid areas with an average annual temperature of 10° to + 20°C. in Europe and America, thin walled stone houses covered with straw, reeds, tiles and iron prevail; in Korea, China and Japan - thin-walled wooden houses covered with for the most part bamboo. An interesting variety the last area are Japanese houses with movable internal partitions and outer walls of matting and frames that can be pulled back to allow air and light to enter, and to allow the inhabitants to jump out into the street in the event of an earthquake. In the thin-walled houses of the European-American type, the frames are single, the stoves are absent or are replaced by fireplaces, and in the Sino-Japanese east - heating pads and braziers. In the dry areas of this region, the settled population lives in the same stone houses with flat roofs, as in dry tropical countries. Huts are used here in spring, summer and autumn. Nomads live here in winter in dugouts, and in summer in felt wagons or yurts, the frame of which is made of wood.

In areas with an average annual temperature of 0° to +10° C, keeping the home warm plays a decisive role; therefore, brick and wooden houses here are thick-walled, on a foundation, with stoves and double frames, with a ceiling backfilled with a layer of sand or clay on top and with a double floor. Roofs are covered with straw, boards and shingles (shingles), roofing felt, tiles and iron. The area of ​​thick-walled houses with iron roofs is also the area of ​​urban high-rise buildings, the extreme expression of which is the American "skyscrapers" with dozens of floors. Nomads of semi-deserts and deserts live here in dugouts and felt yurts, and wandering hunters of the northern forests live in huts covered with deer skins or birch bark.

A strip with a lower annual temperature is characterized in the south by warm winter wooden houses covered with boards, and to the north, in the tundra region, among polar nomads and fishermen - portable tents or tents covered with deer, fish and seal skins. Some polar peoples, for example, the Koryaks, live in winter in pits dug in the ground and lined with logs inside, over which a roof is erected with a hole that serves to escape smoke and to enter and exit the dwelling by a permanent or attached ladder.

In addition to housing, a person erects a variety of buildings for storing supplies, for housing pets, for his labor activity, for various meetings, etc. The types of these structures are extremely diverse, depending on geographical, economic and living conditions.

The dwellings of nomads and wandering hunters are not protected by anything, but with the transition to a settled way of life, barriers appear near the estate, near the plots occupied cultivated plants or destined for the corral or grazing of livestock.

The types of these barriers depend on the availability of a particular material. They are earthen (shafts, ditches and ditches), wicker, pole, board, stone, from thorny bushes and, finally, from barbed wire. In mountainous areas, for example, in the Crimea and the Caucasus, stone walls predominate, in the forest-steppe zone - wattle fences; in wooded areas with small plowed spaces, fences are arranged from poles and stakes, and in some places from boulders. Barriers include not only estate or rural fences, but also wooden and stone walls of ancient cities, as well as long fortifications, which in the old days were erected to protect entire states. These were the Russian "guard lines" (total length 3600 km), which were built in the XVI-XVII centuries to protect against Tatar raids, and the famous Chinese Wall(completed in the 5th century AD), 3300 km long, protecting China from Mongolia.

The choice of a place for human habitation is determined, on the one hand, by natural conditions, i.e., relief, soil properties and proximity to a sufficient amount of fresh water, and on the other hand, by the ability to obtain livelihoods in a chosen place.

Settlements (individual houses and groups of houses) are usually located not in lowlands or hollows, but on elevations with a horizontal surface. So, for example, in mountain villages and cities, individual streets are located as far as possible in the same plane in order to avoid unnecessary ascents and descents; therefore, the lines of houses have an arcuate shape and correspond to isohypses, i.e., lines of equal height. In the same mountain valley, there are many more settlements on the slope that is better illuminated by the sun than on the opposite. On very steep slopes (over 45°) human dwellings, with the exception of cave dwellings, are not found at all. For human habitation, sandy or light loamy soil is best. When arranging housing, swampy, clayey or too loose soil (loose sand, black soil) is avoided. In crowded settlements, soil imperfections that impede movement are eliminated by means of footbridges, sidewalks and various device bridges.

The main reason for the emergence and distribution of human settlements is fresh water. River valleys and lake shores are the most populated, and in interfluve spaces dwellings appear where ground water have a shallow occurrence, and the construction of wells and reservoirs does not present insurmountable difficulties. Waterless spaces are deserted, but are quickly populated with an artificial irrigation device. Of the other reasons that attract human settlements, important role belongs to mineral deposits and roads, especially railways. Any accumulation of human dwellings, a village or a city, arises only where a knot of human relations is tied, where roads converge, or goods are transshipped or transplanted.

In human settlements, houses are either scattered without any order, as in Ukrainian villages, or protrude in rows, forming streets, as we see in Great Russian villages and villages. With an increase in the number of inhabitants, a village or city grows either in breadth, increasing the number of houses, or in height, i.e. one-story houses in multi-storey buildings; but more often this growth occurs simultaneously in both directions.